Scientific establishments and hierarchies

19th century academic approach Artificial Intelligence autonomy basic become cancer research central century chemistry cognitive computer science concemed concepts conflict Daele defined definition difficult disciplines discussion dominant E. O. Wilson Edinburgh elite emergence Essex University evolutionary example experience experimental first funding genetics goals govemment groups hierarchy human human sociobiology identified influence institutionalized institutions intellectual intemal laboratories leaming Lighthill report London means of orientation Michie modem molecular biology nature Norbert Elias Note organizational particular pattem philosophers physicists physics political politicization of science practitioners problems production professional programme reflect relevant reputational communities reputational organizations reputational system research trail restrictedness role scholasticism scientific community Scientific Development scientific establishments scientific fields scientific knowledge scientific research scientists significance social society Sociology Sociology of Science specialty specific status structure T. H. Huxley task uncertainty technical theoretical theory tion tradition