The politico-religious condition of Prussia is not a whit more flattering. The serf system continued to prevail in this kingdom even up to the beginning of the present century; and Laing assures us, that "the condition of these born-serfs” -the great body of the people "was very similar to that of the negro slaves on the West India estate during the apprenticeship term, before their final emancipation.”

He proves that the so much vaunted system of common school education in Prussia, is little more than a powerful state engine to enslave the people.

"This educational system is, in fact, from the cradle to the grave, nothing but a deception, a delusion put upon the noblest principle of human naturethe desire for intellectual development—a deception practiced for the paltry political end of rearing the individual to be part and parcel of an artificial system of despotic government, of training him to be either its instrument or its slave, according to his social station."

He further demonstrates the utter political degradation of Prussia, by enlarging upon the apathy with which the royal fusion of the two Protestant sects into one by the late king of Prussia, was viewed by the mass of the population. He proves at length that the Prussian is, in every respect, the veriest political and religious slave-bound hand and foot by government.

Such then has been, from unexceptionable Protestant testimony, the practical influence of the Reformation on civil and religious liberty in those countries where that influence has been least checked, and longest exercised!

CHAPTER XIV.

THE REFORMATION AT GENEVA, AND ITS INFLUENCE ON CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY.

Character of Calvinism-Protestant historians-The "Registers”—Audin— Calvin's character-His activity-His heartlessness-Luther and Calvin compared-Early liberties of Geneva-The "Libertines”—Blue lawsSpy system-Persecution-Death of Gruet-Burning of Servetus-Hallam's testimony-Morals of Calvin-His zeal-His complicated diseasesHis last will-His awful death and mysterious burial-A douceur-The inference.

THE second great branch of the German Reformation was that established at Geneva by John Calvin. Of all the reformers, he was perhaps the most acute, learned, and talented. And he has succeeded, better perhaps than any of them all, in impressing his own stern and morose character on the sect he founded. Geneva was the center of his operations, as Wittenberg was of those of Luther, and Zurich, of those of Zuingle. Starting from Geneva, Calvinism soon spread through Switzerland, and it afterwards extended to France, Holland, Scotland, and England. Even on the soil of Ger many itself, it was soon able to dispute the supremacy with the sect previously established by Luther. We have deferred till now our account of the origin and progress of Calvinism, because we intend to view it chiefly in its bearing on the subjects treated of in the two last chapters-civil and religious liberty. Besides, in point of time, it is posterior to the branches of the Reformation established respectively by Luther and Zuingle.

Much additional light has been lately shed on the history of early Calvinism. Protestant as well as Catholic historians have labored with great success in this interesting field. Among the former, we mention as among the most distinguished, Galiffe, Gaberel, and Fazy. These three learned

RECENT PROTESTANT RESEARCHES.

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Protestants have all greatly contributed to elucidate the history of Geneva in the sixteenth century. The last named published in 1838 at Geneva, his Essay on the History of the Genevan Republic,* in which he enlarges on the influence of Calvinism on the destinies of the republic. The work of Gaberel, entitled Calvin at Geneva,† enters still more directly into the subject, and furnishes many additional details.

But, for ability, and research into the history of early Calvinism, they are both perhaps surpassed by Galiffe. His three volumes of Genealogical Notices of Genevan Families,‡ unfold much of the secret history of Geneva under the theocracy of Calvin. He has ferreted out and published to the world the famous Registers of the Genevan ecclesiastical consistory and cantonal council during the sixteenth century. These had been long lost to the world. The friends of Calvin seem to have carefully concealed them, out of respect to the character of their father in the faith.

When, some years ago, Vemet requested the Genevan secretary of state, Chapeaurouge, to communicate to him the order of proceedings touching Servetus, the council of state, to whom the matter was referred, refused to grant the request. However, Calandrini, the syndic of Geneva, answered, that "the conduct of Calvin and of the council in that affair were such, that they wished to bury it in deep oblivion."§ But thanks to the indefatigable researches of Galiffe, and to the growing indifference of the ministers of Geneva for the memory of Calvin, those long hidden records of the political and religious history of Geneva during Calvin's lifetime, have been at length revealed to the world. A Protestant has thus removed the dark veil which had hung over the cradle of Calvinism for centuries.

* “Essai d'un précis de l'Histoire de la Rép. Genevaise,” 2 vols., 8vo. "Calvin à Geneve," 8vo. 1836.

"Notices Généalogiques sur les Familles Genevaises," 3 vols. 1831, 1836. The letter of the syndic is published in full by Galiffe in his "Notices,"

sup. cit.

letters of Calvin hitherto unpublished. Among these is famous letter to Farel, which he found in the hand-writ of Calvin himself, in the royal library at Paris. The pu cation of this letter-which is of undoubted genuineness has rendered manifest what before was strongly suspecte the agency of Calvin in compassing the death of Servetus

In what we will have to say on the history of the Re mation at Geneva, we shall follow all these authors. M particularly will we avail ourselves of the facts disclosed the learned and pains-taking Audin. Our plan does not course require, nor will the limits of a single chapter per any very lengthy details on the history of early Calvini The character of this branch of the Reformation, is, in f nearly the same as that of those of Wittenberg and Zur of which we have already treated at some length. Sim means were also adopted to bring it about. Its effects on ciety, as we shall endeavor to show, were also nearly

same.

15

John Calvin was born at Noyon, in France, on the 10t July, 1509, and he died at Geneva, on the 19th of May, in the fifty-fifth year of his age. The first feature wh strikes us in his character, is his untiring industry and rest activity. Whether we view him as a student frequenting schools of Paris, as a minister at Geneva, concerting with

"Histoire de la Vie, des Ouvrages et des Doctrines de Calvin ”. Audin, auteur de "l'Histoire de Luther,"-2 vols., 8vo. Paris, 1843. work has been translated into English by the present distinguished bis of Richmond. Our quotations are from the original.

+ Introduction, p. 19.

Published in full, vol. ii, p. 313, s See Hallam-Hist of Literature, vol. i, p. 280.-Note.

CALVIN'S CHARACTER.

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ministers Farel and Froment his plans for carrying out the Reformation, as an exile at Strasburg, intermeddling with the affairs of German diets and German reformers, or, after his return to Geneva from the exile into which his own restlessness had driven him;-throughout his whole life, in fact, he is the same busy, intriguing, restless character. He was never asleep at his post; he was always on the alert; he toiled day and night in carrying out his plans.

He was as cool and calculating as he was active. He seldom failed, by one means or another, to put down an enemy -and every opponent was his enemy-because he could seldom be taken at a disadvantage. His vigilance detected their plans, and his prompt activity generally thwarted them. Though very irritable, and inexorable in his anger, yet his passion did not cloud his understanding, nor hinder the carrying out of his deliberate purpose. In temperament he was cold and repulsive, even sour and morose. He mingled little with others, and was as reserved in his conversation as he was fond of retirement and study.

If he had any heart, he never gave evidence of the fact by the manifestation of feeling. At the death of his first and only child, he appears to have shed not one tear. In a letter to the minister Viret, he coldly informed him of the fact, and invited him to pay him a visit at Strasburg, telling him, as an inducement to come, "that they could enjoy themselves, and talk together for half a day."* He never manifested the least sympathy for those in distress, though in many cases he was himself the cause of their sufferings. Thus, when Servetus, on hearing that he was condemned to the stake, gave way to his feelings in a burst of agony and tears, Calvin mocked at his distress by writing to one of his friends "that he bellowed after the manner of a Spaniard-mercy, mercy."+

* See Audin, Vie de Calvin, vol. i, p. 351, note, for Calvin's words. "Ut tantum Hispanico more reboaret: Misericordia, misericordia!” Ibid., vol. ii, p. 304.