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884. Where the connectives that and as have the force of relatives in English (120, 122), the Latin uses a true relative form. Idem est qui fuit semper, is the same as he always was.-Cic.

885. After negative propositions and questions implying a negative (123), Rel. Cl's are often introduced by quin (quine) or quominus (quo-minus). Nemo venit quin viderit, no one came but saw.— .-Cic.

886. Rel. Cl's are sometimes used adjunctively. Here, as in the case of the Inf. Cl. the logical relation is always expressed by the case-ending of the relative. Vim quacumque ope possent a corpore propulsarent, they repelled violence from their persons, with whatever means they could.

887. Unlike the English (126), the relative is rarely, if ever, omitted in Latin. Rel. Cl's are frequently introduced by a relative adverb, where we should use a relative pronoun in English. Ab Etruscis finitimis unde sella curulis sumpta est, from their neighbors, the Etrurians, whence, (from whom, Eng.) were borrowed the curule chair.-Livy.

888. Relative clauses are used as substantive, adverbial, and adjective elements. When used substantively, they regularly take the subjunctive mood, and hence are termed Rel. Subj. Cls.

(127-130 same as in English. Note particularly 129, which is equally true in Latin)

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SUMMARY.

889. RELATIVE CLAUSES are such as are introduced by a relative pronoun, a relative adverb, a relative connective, or a relative phrase.

1. The relative may be in any grammatical case when a pronoun.

2. The relative does not always stand at the head of its clause.

3. Rel. Cl's introduced by ut must be distinguished from Dem. or Conj. clauses.

4. Rel. Cl's are often introduced by quin and quominus after negative propositions and questions implying a negative.

5. Rel. Cl's are sometimes used adjunctively, the relation in such a case being always expressed by the ease-ending of the relative.

6. This clause is used both substantively, adverbially, and adjectively.

THE CONJUNCTIVE CLAUSE (131-135).

890. Conjunctive clauses are such as are introduced by a subordinate connective (828). Ut and ne signifying that, that not, must be distinguished from the same forms meaning in order that, in order that not (828, 5, and 855). So quod= that, from quod because.

891. When a Conj. Cl. contains a comparative, and expresses "Purpose," (588), it is usually introduced by quoin order that. The connective is rarely if ever omitted (133). In Latin Conj. Cl's are almost always used adverbially (265).

CHAPTER III AND CHAPTER IV. THE FORMS AND FUNCTIONS OF LOGICAL ELEMENTS, (145-324).

(The discussions in these chapters (pp. 39-84). apply, in the main, equally to the Latin. We shall need to consider only a few facts respecting the regimen of sentences and clauses.)

REGIMEN OF SENTENCE-FORMS, (287-299.)

892-1. Declarative Sentences are, generally, expressed by the Indic. mood-form. Rex decrevit, the king decreed. -Nepos. When, however, an idea of contingency is involved, the Subjunctive is used.

Hoc nemo dixerit, no one would say this.-Cic.

2.

But when not mere contingency, but an idea of ability, power, obligation, duty, permission, necessity, or determination (419) is involved, a distinct verb-form is used to express these notions. Possum legere, I can read, (ability).

Debes hoc etiam rescribere, you should rewrite this also, (obligation).-Hor.

893-1. IMPERATIVE Sentences are regularly expressed by the Imperative mood-form.

Justitiam cole, cultivate justice.-Cic.

2. When, however, it is intended to express a command mildly, or any other imperative thought below a positive command, as exhortation, entreaty, or wish (275), the Subjunctive mood-form is used.

Robore utere, use your strength.—Cic. (Mild command). Amemus patriam, may we love our country.-Cic. (Exhortation). Sint beati, may they be hap py.-Cic. (Wish).

3. Imperative Sentences expressing a wish, are often introduced by the particle utinam, and sometimes, especially in the poets, by ut, si, o si. When the wish is possible of fulfilment the present tenses of the Subjunctive are used, when impossible, the historical.

Utinam possim, may I be able.-Cic. Utinam possem, would that I were able.-Cic.

4. Imperative Sentences, when negative, generally take ne instead of non.

Ne audeant, let them not dare.-Cic.

894-1. INTERROGATIVE Sentences take the same moodforms as Declarative Sentences, (892, 1, 2). They are generally introduced by an Interrogative word or phrase (834). Quis non povertatem timescit, who does not fear poverty?—Cic.

2. Affirmative Interrogative Sentences (292) are introduced by Nonne.

Nonne scribit, is he not writing? (yes).

Negative Interrogative Sentences (292, last remark) are introduced by Num. Num scribit, he is not writing, is he? (no).

Interrogative Sentences neither affirmative nor negative, (which may be answered by either yes or no), are introduced by ne as suffix.

Scribitne, is he writing?

3. There is sometimes an ellipsis of the interrogative particle; numquid is occasionally used for num; and ecquid

for ne or nonne.

Ecquid vides, do you not see?

4. Alternative Interrogative Sentences "whether-or " (190) generally have the first coordinate introduced by utrum, num, or ne, and the second by an.

Utrum ea vestra an nostra culpa est, is that fault yours or ours?—Cic.

5. Sometimes there is an ellipsis of the particle in the first coordinate, and the second has an or ne.

Eloquar an sileam, shall I speak or be silent?-Virg.

6. Sometimes there is an ellipsis of the whole of the first coordinate.

An hoc timemus, or do we fear this?-Liv.

7. When the second coordinate is negative, the compound forms annon, necne are generally used.

Sunt haec tua verba necne, are these your words or not ?-Cic.

895. EXCLAMATORY Sentences take the same mood-forms as Declarative Sentences. They are generally introduced by relative pronouns, adjectives or adverbs. Reliquit quos viros, what heroes has he left!-Cic.

REGIMEN OF CLAUSE-FORMS, (299-318).

896-1. DECLARATIVE CLAUSES (299), whatever their specific use (198) regularly take either the INF. or the PART. construction.

Audivi te venisse, I heard that you came.-Cic. Turnum fugientem videbit, he shall see Turnus flying.Virg.

2. With impersonal forms signifying "it happens,"66 comes to pass,"- -" remains,”—" follows," &c. (219, 3), the UT-SUBJ. (Dem.) regimen (852) is used.

Fit ut nemo contentus vivat, it happens that no one lives content.-Cic.

3. Declarative Clauses when used to indicate a Historical Fact, or the Causal Object (505) frequently take the QUODINDIC. form (852, 2).

Illa nimis antiqua praetereo, quod C. Servilius Ahala Sp. Melium occidit I pass over those too ancient instances, that C. Servilius Ahala slew Spurius Melius.-Cic. Quod spiratis indignantur, they are indignant that you breathe.— Cic.

897-1. IMPERATIVE CLAUSES, (303, 304) however used, (198) regularly take the UT-SUBJ. (Dem.) regimen.

Postulant ut signum detur, they demand that the signal be given.-Liv. Volo ut mihi respondeas, I wish you to reply to me.—Cic,

2. Words of Fearing and Caution always involve the imperative notion of wish (275, 5). Hence substantive clauses logically connected with such words take the regular impera

tive UT-SUBJ. regimen. Since however wish is directly the opposite of fear, in these clauses ut that not, and ne that. Thus,

Vereor ut veniat, I fear that he will not come I wish that he may come. Vereor ne veniat, I fear that he will come I wish that he may not come.

3. Imperative Clauses sometimes take the INF. regimen. This is commonly the construction with veto and jubeo; it frequently occurs with words of wishing and permitting; and occasionally with some others.

Omnem senatum ad se convenire jussit, commanded the whole senate to come to him.-Cæs. Te tua frui virtute cupimus, wish you to enjoy the fruit of your own valor.-Cic.

4. Imperative Clauses often omit the connective ut; and when of the INF. form (897, 4) they sometimes omit the SUBJECT.

(Ut) id sinas oro, I pray (that) you will permit this.-Ovid. Vellem (u) mos esset, I wish (that) it were the custom.-Ter. Castra (milites) munirė jubet, commands (the soldiers) to fortify the camp.-Cæs.

898-1. INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES, (306) however used, (198) take the REL.-SUBJ. regimen (888).

Qualis sit animus ipse animus nescit, the mind itself does not know what the mind is.-Cic.

2. Interrogative Clauses, when alternative (190), generally have,

1. Utrum or ne in the first coordinate and an in the second. 2. An ellipsis of the interrogative connective in the first coordinate, and an or ne in the second.

Multum interest utrum laus imminuatur an salus deseratur.-Cic. Quaeritur natura in doctrina possit efficere virtus, it is asked whether virtue can be secured by nature or education.-Cic.

3. In the poets and later prose writers, Interrogative Clauses sometimes take the Indicative.

899. EXCLAMATORY CLAUSES (310), however used (198), take the REL.-SUBJ. regimen.

Credibile non est quantum scribam, it is incredible how much I write.-Cic. In most editions of the classics now in use in our schools, Exclamatory Clauses are improperly followed by the mark of interrogation (?). They are evidently confounded with Interrogative Clauses. Indeed both these clauseforms are denominated Indirect Questions in all our Latin Grammars. By a strange inconsistency, they are never thus designated in our English Grammars, those questions only being here called indirect which cannot be answered by yes or no.

900. INDEFINITE CLAUSES (312), however used (198),

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