64. A CLAUSE-FORM consists of a substantive term and a predicative term logically connected, but not making complete sense; as, "If he come," "Think him to be noble," "Because they

went."

NOTE. The following abbreviations may be used to designate more conveniently these three "classes" of Logical Elements, viz: W. f., Wordform; P. f., Phrase-form; C. f., Clause-form.

SEC. II.-THE WORD-FORM.

65. We have seen that a word-form consists of a single significant word. Hence, only the significant parts of speech (19) can be word-forms, in the present meaning of this term. Hence, likewise, relation-words, and connective-words, unless they gain a significance by use, (20) cannot be word-forms; so the words it and there, when used as expletives merely. Interjections, also, since they never constitute an organic element of a sentence, are not considered word-forms.

REMARK. An expletive is a word, usually it or there, often used to introduce a proposition when the subject of the same is an infinitive, or a clause, or when for other reasons it is placed after the verb; as," It is wrong to steal." "It is said that he was honest." "There were many persons in the place."

The adverb now sometimes has the force of an expletive merely; as, "Now Herod was dead."

66. The various combinations used to express voice, mode and tense are considered as word-forms merely, as, " Am loved,” "Shall be loved," "Shall have been loved," "Might have been loved," &c. So also, when the auxiliaries of emphasis, do and did are used, as, “Do love,” “Did love."

So, likewise the Infinitive, though always preceded by the preposition to, is considered a word-form, since the particle to in this case expresses no relation (63) whatever, and is as much a characteristic of the infinitive, as may or can is of the potential mode.

67. Among the various varieties of word-forms, it is sometimes convenient to designate,

(1.) Demonstrative word-forms, (50); as, "This," "that," 66 those," &c.

(2) Relative word-forms, (37); as, "Which," "what," &c.

verbal sign. "Term" may be a significant word, a phrase or a clause, considered always as an element; or any logical combination of words, used as an organic constituent of a larger combination.

(3.) Participial word-forms; as, "Loving," "going," "riding," &c. (4.) The Infinitive word-form; as, "To study," to learn."

(5.) Conjunctive word-forms; i. e., those introduced by subordinate connectives, (30); as, "Came as leader." "More nice

than wise."

EXERCISE 7.-Distinguish the word-forms in the following. Point out such as are relative, demonstrative, participial, or conjunctive word-forms.

We, as, of, going, when, from, this, and, men, wise, if, he, since, with, ime, oh! works, how, then, among, wherefore, but, come, thither, whom, thus, without, .alas! over, writing, good, nobly, thereupon, whereat, those, while, lest, as, if, while. There was a man. It is evident that the world grows better. The heavens above. A noise from below. Up, cowards! An under garment. The above statement. Was studying. (66) He might have been punished. Did he come? Has he arrived? Began to study. Should he have been studying?

SEC. III. THE PHRASE-FORM.

68. A PHRASE-FORM, as we have seen, consists of a substantive term and a relation-word logically connected; as, "Of Wisdom," "To me," "By which."

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REMARK. Words are logically connected when so combined as to make sense. Thus, "by reads," " among him", around wise," are mechanical and not logical combinations. 69. The possessive case, since it always involves an idea of relationship, expressed by the possessive ending, is considered a phrase-form. Thus, "Solomon's temple ""The temple of Solomon."

70. REMARK. In other languages, as the Latin and the Greek, several inflections, or case endings, are thus used. Thus, while homo means a "man," hominis means "of a man," homini" to or for a man," and homine, "with, from, or by a man." In the Laplandish tongue there are six different case endings, expressing as many different relations. Thus, what our language accomplishes by separate words, (prepositions) another performs by mere inflections.

71. NOTE 1. The relation-word, in a phrase-form, as a matter of grammatical construction, should always immediately precede the substantive term. Hence the word preposition, from the Latin prae and pono, signifies placed before. Sometimes however, for rhetorical effect, or from a necessity of the metre in poetry, the relation-word immediately follows the substantive with which it is logically combined; as, "Thy deep ravines and dells among."-Scott. "The thing is known all the orld over."-Walker.

72. NOTE 2. Sometimes the relation-word is placed after, and separated from, its substantive; as "Whom did you speak to." "Which door did he come in at." "This we are proud of." This separation always occurs with the words that and as, when used as relative pronouns (41) in phrasal combinations; as, "The thing that I spoke of" (= of which, &c.) "Such persons as he lives with " (with whom, &c.) In the above examples," whom to," "which door at," ""this of," that of," and "as with" are all phrase-forms.

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73. NOTE 3. So, likewise, when a substantive element of the phraseform is used with a passive verb; as, “Spoke to him," active voice; "He was spoken to," passive voice. "Talked about you," active; "You were talked about," passive. 'Laughed at you," active; "You were laughed at," passive. In these cases, the mere mechanical separation of the constituents of the phrase-forms, occasioned by a grammatical necessity from a change of voice, by no means destroys the logical connection of these words. The preposition performs equally the office of a relation-word, whether with its substantive in the active, or removed from and after it in the passive. Here, as in many other cases, the grammar and the logic differ. (13)

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74. NOTE 4. When, however, in the above cases, we have, instead of a passive verb, a passive participle, the substantive term is made to assume another and a new relation, and the preposition becomes substantially an adverb in force; (20) as, "The man, spoken to, has left." The persons, talked about, we were living with." Here, however, there is really an ellipsis which we may supply if we choose, and retain the relational force of the preposition; thus, "The persons (who were) talked about," &c.

75. NOTE 5. In the Greek and the Latin, the grammar does not compel this disseverance of the components of a phrase-form in such cases. Thus, "Dixit de te," "Talked about you," "De te dictum est," "About you (it) was talked," or " You were talked about." "Dixit ad te" (or tibi) "Spoke to you." "Ad te dictum est," "You were spoken to." 76. Sometimes the relation-word is omitted; as, " Bring me (to me) a book." "Give him (to him) a present." "Write me "Leave me (for me) a paper."

(to me) a letter."

77.

Sometimes likewise the substantive term is omitted. This ellipsis occurs most frequently in the case of relatives; as, "The man I conversed with." (with whom.) "A knife to cut with." (with which.) "A house to live in." (in which.)

78. NOTE. Sometimes the substantive term is neither expressed nor necessarily implied; as, "A voice from above." "A cry from without." In these and similar cases the preposition has the force of a substantive, (20). Again," He rides about." "He walked to and fro." In such cases the preposition is an adverb in point of use.

These cases must not be confounded with those where the preposition is merely a part of the verb. (See

79. A Phrase-form may itself constitute the substantive term in another phrase-form; as, " From beyond Jordan." "Sold at above five guineas.” "Iambic verse consists of from two to six feet." In these expressions the prepositions from, at, and of, respectively mark the relationship of the following phrase-forms, considered as substantives. For the sake of distinction, these are termed adjunctive phrase-forms. They are most commonly introduced by the relation-word from; as, "from among," "from about," "from before," "from above," &c. So likewise the substantive term may be a possessive phrase-form; as, "A book, of his." "A house of mine." "A horse of John's."

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80. A Clause-form (64) may constitute the substantive term in a phrase-form; as, " (Speaks) to whoever listens.” “ (Was patriotic) in that he died for his country." (Knows) by what happened." "(Nothing marred our pleasure) except that we were delayed." Here evidently the prepositions to, in, by and except, mark the relationship of the entire succeeding clause. For the sake of convenience these are termed adjunctive clause-forms, or clausal phrase-forms.

81. REMARK. A Clausal phrase-form, introduced by a relative pronoun or a relative adjective, must be carefully distinguished from a simple relative phrase. The difference will become manifest by a simple transposition of the relative and the preposition. If we have a relative phrase-form merely, since the relation indicated is confined to the following relative, both these words may be transposed, without destroying the sense, for by so doing we sunder no logical connection. Thus, "(Knows) to whom he spoke," transposed, "He spoke to whom," which is good sense. Again, "(The man) for whom he worked," transposed, "He worked for whom," likewise good sense. If however, we have a clausal phraseform, since, not the relative merely, but the whole clause is now involved in the relationship marked by the preposition, we cannot make such a transposition, without sundering the logical connection, and consequently without destroying the sense. Thus " (Gives) to whomsoever he loves," transposed, "He loves to whomsoever," which is nonsense. (Much depends) on who the King is," transposed, "The King is on who," which is nonsense likewise.

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'So,

82. NOTE. Among the numerous varieties of phrase-forms, we shall find it convenient to distinguish the following; viz:

(1.) The Demonstrative phrase-form; as, "By these," "Of that." (2.) The Infinitive phrase-forin; as, "About to go."

(3.) The Participial phrase-form; as, " By going," "In reading."

(4.) The Relative phrase-form; as,

66 From whom," ""In which."

(5.) The Conjunctive phrase-form, i. e. one introduced by a subordinate connective; as, "Better for you than for me."

(6.) The Possessive phrase-form, as, " Solomon's temple."

EXERCISE 8.-Distinguish the word-forms and the phrase-forms. Classify the word-forms according to 17, and the phrase-forms according to 82. Supply ellipses when necessary.

ILLUSTRATION. "Built several houses to live in." "Built" is a predicative word-form. "Several " is an attributive word-form.

"Houses" is a substantive word-form. "To live" is a predicative wordform. "In" (=in which) is a relative phrase-forin, the relative being implied.

Men. With men. By which. Of reading. To read, (66.) About them. Whom. To whom. To learn. Learning. From us. Whom did (72) you speak to? A sight of what pleases us. (80.) Will lend me (76) his (69) book. For learning. Spoke to him. Ship to sail in. (77.) Whom I spoke to. (72.) This was (73) spoken of. The thing that he spoke of. A view of what pleased me. (80.) Has nothing to work with. Ran over the boy. The boy was run over. Such matters as were talked about. Voices from within. (78.) This they boasted of. What did he lecture on? Lectured on what he saw. (80.). Brought them many presents. Was (73) he laughed at? did you laugh at? Imposed upon us. We were imposed upon. Whom did they impose upon? The same persons that were confided in. It is known the world over. News from beyond Strives for whatever benefits him. Will be lost except (31) they repent. Were traitors in that they deserted. giver from beneath his feet. We went up to him. to whom he spoke. Spoke to whom he pleased.

the sea.

SEC. IV. THE CLAUSE-FORM.

Whom

A law

The person

83. The Clause-form, it will be remembered, consists of a substantive term and a predicative term: logically connected, but not usually making complete sense. Now clause-forms may be divided, according to their form of construction into,

REMARK. This classification embraces all possible clause-forms in any language. Hence when once learned in the English, it may be applied at once to the Latin, the Greek, the French, the German, &c.

84. Demonstrative clauses are such as are introduced by the demonstrative connective that, or lest when equivalent to that; as, (Said) that he would come.' "(Feared) lest (=that) he would

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come."

NOTE 1. Demonstrative clauses are sometimes improperly introduced