208. The Clause-form may be any one of the five different clauses heretofore discussed. (83) Of them, however, the demonstrative and the infinitive are always used substantively; the participial more commonly; the relative quite frequently; but the conjunctive only very rarely.

209. These five clause-forms, indeed may not only all be used substantively, but, with the exception of the last, they may each perform all the five different offices which characterize substantive elements. (198) Thus,

210. THE DEMONSTRATIVE CLAUSE may be, Subj. "That he is guilty is believed," or "It is believed that he is guilty.' Pred., "The belief was that he is guilty." Obj., They believe that he was guilty." App., "The belief that he was guilty." Adjunc., "He was disgraced in that he was found guilty."

211. THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE may be, Subj. “He (was believed) to be guilty." Obj., “They believe him to be guilty." Adjunc. and Subj. "For him to be guilty seems incredible." Adjunc. and Pred., "The order was for him to go.” Adjunc. and App., "The order for him to go was given."

212. THE PARTICIPIAL CLAUSE may be, Subj. "He was detected acting falsely," or " His having acted falsely was charged against him." Pred., The charge was his having acted falsely." Obj., They proved his having acted falsely," or "They saw him acting falsely." App. and Adjunc., "The report of his having acted falsely was believed.” Adjunc. and Pred, "Am sure of his having acted falsely."

213. THE RELATIVE CLAUSE may be, Subj., "Who he was is not known." Pred., "The inquiry was what we believed." Obj., "They inquired what we believed." App., The inquiry, how we shall raise sufficient funds was raised." Adj., "Much depends on who the leader is."',

214. THE CONJUNCTIVE CLAUSE may be, Pred., "The reason of their failure was because they were not well armed." App., "They came for this purpose, in order that they might conquer the enemy."

215. The infinitive clause can be used predicatively and appositively only in its adjunctive form. The participial clause can be used appositively only in its adjunctive form.

216. The conjunctive clause is almost never used substantively, and when thus used, it is usually either an appositive or a predicative.

217. REMARK. These five forms of the clause (83) have all these five substantive uses (198) likewise in the Latin and the Greek. The adjunctive use of the future, and perfect passive participial clause in the Latin is very extensive. The objective use of the active participial clause prevails very extensively in the Greek.

EXERCISE 23.-Analyze, defining the clause-forms and pointing out their logical use.

ILLUSTRATION. 66

Speaks to whoever comes.'

An El. of the Cx. W-f; of which "Speaks" is the B. of the S. W-f.,

and modified by the remainder, a Subt. of the Adj. Rel. C-f., of which "whoever" is the substantive term, "comes" is the predicative term, and "to" is the relation-word.

"Prevented their coming."

An El. of the Cx. W-f.; of which "prevented" is the B. of the S. W-f., and modifies by "their coming" an Obj. Part, C-f.; of which “their” is the substantive term and "coming " is the predicative term.

"Orders for the city to be plundered."

An El. of the Cx. W-f.; of which "orders" is the B. of the S. W-f., and modified by the remainder, a Subt. of the Adjunc. Inf. C-1.; of which "the city" is the substantive term, and "to be plundered" is the predicate term and "for" is the relation-word. The Adjunc. Inf. C-f. is likewise appositive with "orders."

1. The order that we should march. 2. The order for us to march. 3. The order is that we shall march. 4. The or5. It was ordered that we should

der for our marching. march. 6. Saw them march. 7. Were they seen marching? 9. Their marching was dis11. He was made to study. 13. The fact that he studies. 15. Asked what light is. 17. Knows what light 19. Was talking upon what light is was dis22. Suffer little child

8. Prevented their marching. covered. 10. Made him study. 12. The fact of his studying. 14. It is hard for him to study. 16. The question is what is light. is. 18. It is known what light is. what light is. 20. The question of cussed. 21. Let him be punished. ren to come unto me. 23. Reported the enemy defeated. 24. Their cause was thought to be just. 24. Said he believed (88) the soul to be immortal. 25. Thinks they were compelled to stop on account of (35) the bridge being broken down. 26. Were not sure of the bridge having been broken down. The question is whether the bridge has been broken down. 28. "What reason prescribes to them they do."-Josephus. 29. "Purified from what appeared to be its real defects."- Wardsworth.

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SEC. III.-REGIMEN OF SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES WITH THE PRINCIPAL VERB.

218. We have seen that all the five varieties of the clauseform may be used substantively (208). When thus used they are almost always construed with predicative words, expressing,

1. Physical Sensation.

2. Mental State and Action.

3. Mental Feeling and Emotion.

4. Communication of Thought and Feeling.

219. These clauses are, likewise, but less frequently found with predicative words of (1) Causing, Effecting, and Preventing; (2) Beginning, Continuing and Ceasing; (3) Transpiring and Happening; (4) Advantage and Custom, and (5) Doing, Having and Possessing.

220. The predicatives of Physical Sensation most commonly used are those of Hearing, Seeing and Feeling; as, hear; see, behold, witness, view, spy, discern, descry, appear, seem; feel. So the passive and expletive forms. It is heard, seen; it appears, seems, &c.

221. The predicatives of Mental State and Action are chiefly those of Perceiving, Thinking and Knowing; as, perceive, see, (= perceive,) note, observe, &c.; think, consider, reckon, esteem, believe, remember, &c.; know, understand, be aware of, apprehend, feel, (= know,) &c. So likewise the passive and expletive forms. It is perceived, thought, known; it is clear, obvious, manifest, evident, true, certain, &c.; it results, follows, &c.

222. The predicatives of Mental Feeling and Emotion most in use are those of Pleasure and Pain, Pride and Shame, Wonder and Astonishment, Anger and Resentment, Fearing and Hoping; as, rejoice, be pleased, be delighted, grieve, mourn, be sorry, be indignant, &c.; boast, be proud, be ashamed, be abashed, &c.; wonder, marvel, be astonished, be surprised, be amazed, &c.; be angry, take amiss, take offence, take umbrage, be enraged, be incensed, be inflamed, &c.; fear, dread, hope, &c.

223. The predicatives expressing Communication of Thought in most common use, are those of Saying, Affirming, Considering, Commanding, Exhorting, Entreating, Choosing, Electing, and Hearing, (= ascertaining,) whether by an oral, written, or any symbolic expression; as, say, narrate, relate, tell, recount, state, write, indicate, signify, &c.; affirm, assure, assert, profess, aver, declare, contend, maintain, &c.; concede, grant, allow, acknowledge, &c.; command, order, bid, charge, direct, decree, enact, require, &c.; exhort, advise, persuade, counsel, warn, recommend, &c.; entreat, pray, bid, ask, request, beseech, implore, urge, &c.; hear, (= learn,) learn, ascertain, choose, elect, create, appoint, &c.; ascertain, find out, be informed, be assured, hear ( ascertain,) learn (= same,) &c.; so the passive forms of the same.

224. The principal predicatives of Causing, Effecting and Preventing, (219) are, cause, make, force, compel, oblige, &c.; prevent, hinder, stop, restrain, check, &c.;-those of Beginning, Continuing and Ceasing, are, begin, commence, continue, cease, abstain, &c.;-those of Transpiring and Happening, are, come to pass, happen, turn out, &c.;those of Advantage and Custom and contraries, are the expletive forms, it is useful, best, expedient, desirable, necessary, &c.; it is customary, usual, common, strange, singular, unusual, wonderful, remarkable, &c. 225. When Substantive Clauses are used appositively (202)

the base is either a substantive term, which, in point of signification, belongs directly to some one of the above clauses of predicatives (218); or it is a demonstrative (rarely a relative) logically connected with some one of these predicative words; as "The thought that we must die" (218.2). "The consideration that all have sinned" (218.2). "The news that our army was defeated" (218.4). "The sight of a thousand men marching" (218.1). "The command for us to advance (218.4). "The lamentation that all is lost" (218.3) "The sorrow of having lost his best friend" (218.3) "The circumstance that we had left our baggage" (219.3). "The custom of their going annually to the Capital (219.4). So with demonstratives. Thus, "He said this, that the report was true" (218.4). "We believe this, that the soul is immortal" (218.2). "We chiefly regret this, that our captain was killed" (218.3). Sometimes the demonstrative is an adverb (51); as, He argued thus, that if light were material, the sun would sometime become exhausted." Hereby we do know that we know him, if we keep his commandments." 1 John 2:3. The expletive it, when equivalent to a demonstrative may be regarded as the real base of the substantive clause to which it refers; as, It is expedient that we come," (=This is expedient, viz., that we come.)

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226. REMARK. So in the Latin we sometimes have a demonstrative adverb for the base of an appositive clause. Thus, "Velim ita statutum habeas, me tui memoriam cum summa benevolentia tenere." Cicero. "I wish you to be assured thus that I retain your memory with the liveliest pleasure.” So likewise a demonstrative in the Latin is used precisely as we use the expletive. Thus "Illud parvi refert, nos vectigalia recuperare." Cicero. "It is of small importance that we recover our revenues."

227. When substantive clauses are used predicatively (200) the subject of the proposition is a substantive whose signification belongs to one of the above classes, (218) as, "The theory is that light is material." (218.2) "The command was for them to march." (218.4) grief was that he had lost his friend." (218.3)

"His

228. REMARK. Substantive clauses in the Latin and Greek languages are always found with precisely the same predicative words. Hence these very important constructions, being once learned in the English, are learned equally for the classics.

229. It should be noticed that nearly all the foregoing predicatives express ideas very closely related. With two or three exceptions, they all indicate intellectual operations, or throse which very nearly approximate the same. They likewise mark, in the order in which we have given them, (218) the natural sequence of mental processes. Thus, Physical sensation necessarily precedes thought, ("mental state and action"): thought is the parent of emotion ("mental feeling and emotion"); and thought and emotion give birth to language ("com. of thought.") The remaining predicatives, those of causing &c., and the impersonal forms, nearly all express ideas similar to the above.

230. Hence substantive clauses in all languages, are usually directly construed with predicatives, (or attributives or substantives used predicatively) expressive of intellectual or semi-intellectual processes.

231. The Dem. clause is found with almost all the above predicatives. The Inf. clause has a more limited construction; it is however, the only substantive declarative (299) clause, that can be properly construed with words of causing and beginning.

232. The Part. clause occurs usually with words of physical sensation, and words of commanding, exhorting, advising, encouraging, fearing, preferring, bearing and enduring. The Rel. clause is found with words of having, acquiring, possessing, &c. ; as,“ He does what he wishes.” "He has whatever he wants."

Write sentences illustrating all the five offices or uses, of the four clauses, above mentioned, each sentence containing one clause. SEC. IV. THE SUBSTANTIVE TERM (Con.)

THE SUBJECT.

233. The Subject is that of which the affirmation is made (199). It must be carefully distinguished from the grammatical form. The subject is a thing or thought; the grammatical form is a mere word (13). Thus, "The sun is an immense orb." Here evidently that of which the affirmation is made, is the heavenly body itself, while the grammatical form is the verbal symbol, sun."

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234. This distinction will become all the more evident, if we reflect that case, which may be predicated of the grammatical form, cannot be predicated of the object. We can, not affirm, certainly, of the sun, that it has a nominative case. On the other hand, evidently magnitude, which may be predicated of the thing, can not be affirmed of the grammatical form; for the word "sun'' is certainly not an "immense orb."

235. From the above it is evident that the term "grammatical subject" found in so many of our grammars, is not only unnecessary, but actually void of meaning; for its literal translation is "word thought" or "symbolic substance" which is nonsense. It must be understood that the subject is always a thing or a thought, and the grammatical form a word or a sign, and these must not be confounded.

236. Note the manifest difference between the subject and the caseform in the following. "Science was lectured upon." Nom. case-form, science; subject, something understood, for the sense is "Upon science (something) was lectured or said." (72). "He was seen coming." Nom. case-form, he; subject, he coming, for the sense is "he coming was seen." (106) "He was seen to fall." Nom. case-form, he; subject, he to fall. (96). "It is evident that he fell." Nom. case-form it; subject, that he

fell.

237. The Word-form of the subject may be any "part of speech" which can constitute a substantive term. (206).

238. The Phrase-form of the subject only very rarely occurs. When