In a battle do not turn it to any other purpose than that you originally intended, as otherwise confusion and disorder will arise.

Sudden accidents are with difficulty surmounted, but anticipated evils are remedied with facility.

Men, arms, money, and food are the nerves of warfare; but of these four the two first are the most necessary, because men and arms can obtain money and food, but food and money cannot procure men and arms.

The rich disarmed are the reward of the poor conquering.

Accustom your soldiers to despise dainty living, and luxurious clothing, &c.

The foregoing general rules are sufficient for the present, but many more might be added, arising from the system of ancient nations in organizing and feeding, &c., their armies.

Commanders.-There are two descriptions of commanders deserving commendation: those who, with a well-organized army, by its internal discipline have accomplished great deeds, as evidenced by the ancient Romans; and others who, when commanding armies, have maintained them in an efficient condition, and directed their movements judiciously; other commanders have not only had to conquer their enemies, but previous to this have had to instruct and discipline their own troops; these latter commanders certainly merit higher eulogiums than those who, with the renowned and veteran troops of the ancients, have performed admirable operations. Of these latter were Pelopidas, Epaminondas, Tullius Hostilius, Philip of Macedon, (father of Alexander), Cyrus king of Persia, Gracchus Romanus. All these had first to perfect the discipline of their troops, and then to lead them into action.

Contrast the soldier of olden times with that of modern times :"Quando potrei io fare portare ad uno di questi soldati che hoggi si praticano, più armi che le consuete, ed oltre all' armi il cibo per due ò tre giorni, e la zappa? Quando potrei io farlo zappare, ò tenerio ogni giorno molte hore sotto l'armi ne gli essercitii finti, per potere poi ne' veri valermene? Quando si asterebbe egli da' giuochi, dalle lascivie, dalla bestemmie, dalle insolenze che ogni di fanno? Quando si ridurrebero eglino in tanta discipiina, in tanta ubbidienza e riverenza che un arbore pieno di pomi nel mezzo de gli allogiamenti vi si trovasse e lasciasse intatto? Come si legge che ne gli esserciti antichi molte volte intervenne. Che cosa poss' io promettere loro, mediante la quale, mi habbiano cō riverenza ad amare ò temere, quãdo finita la guerra non hanno più in alcuna cosa à convenire meco? Di che gli hò à fare vergognare, che sono nati ed allevati senza vergogna? Per quale Iddio, ò per quali santi gli hò io à fare giurare? Per quei ch' egli adorano, ò quei che bestemmiano? Che ne adorino, non sò io alcuno; ma sò bene chi gli bestemmiano tutti. Come hò io à credere, ch' egli osseverino le promesse à coloro, che ad ogni hora essi dispregiano."

The foregoing extract has been introduced as a specimen of the style of our ancient writer on the art of war, who, in his observations, has spared neither friend nor foe, and who, after his severe animad

versions of his countrymen, thus closes his opinion of them, "Rimangono il vituperio del mondo." Alas! for "la grandeur des Romains!" has it entirely passed away, and are the former conquerors of the world now to be stigmatized as "the disgrace of the world"? In following the astute and gifted author through his exposition of the science of warfare, I have not thought it advisable to comment on many portions of the extracts which well deserved consideration, being unwilling to extend the present portion of the subject to too great a length, as I purpose hereafter bringing under your notice works of more modern authors, finally closing with "Maximes et Instructions sur l'Art de la Guerre." I must, however, briefly recall your attention to engagements, stratagems, provisions, marching in an enemy's country, exercises, health, and precautions; countries and fortresses; correspondence and general rules.

Under these heads, as well as others not specified, a diligent student of "the art of war" will find much matter for reflection; and it will be advantageous for him to compare the cautious and laborious mode of carrying on war, exemplified in ancient armies, with the system at present in force. In olden times a soldier became, as it were, not only a cosmopolite, but a Jack-of-all-trades; not only could he fight, but he could handle dexterously almost every description of tool, and could support himself on food that would cause a British army to "vanish into thin air." Meal, acid, and lard sufficed for the wants of Roman soldiers; with these provisions they were satisfied, and, sustained by these, they patiently and courageously endured hardships the relation of which would make many modern soldiers blush for shame. Truly, though sarcastically, has the inferiority of the moderns been made apparent in the foregoing extract of our indignant author. Most valuable instruction may be derived from the brief directions, &c., in General Rules," which may justly be considered an epitome of the art of war, an art to attain eminence in which requires both theory and practice. Possessing both of these, and also well-disciplined troops, a commander of an army may confidently anticipate success in any operation he may undertake; but, possessing only one of these qualifications, to chance, in a great measure, must he look for the slightest advantage; for an officer who undertakes duties which he must know he is not qualified efficiently to perform, may bring disgrace on himself, and cause ruin to his country. Deservedly should woe be the lot of that disgraced individual! woe, woe to him! and, in the forcible words of Sir W. Williams, of Kars, "Woe to the nation that neglects the art of war!"

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THE BENGAL ARMY.-Sir J. Ramsden, in answer to General Windham, said it was true there was a report drawn up by General Sir Charles Napier upon the organization of the Bengal army, and sent home privately, he believed, to the late Duke of Wellington. He was informed that he did not enter into details as to the organization of the Bengal army, but related merely to the military occupation of the country, and embraced details important to the administration of military government there. It was not, however, a despatch to be laid on the table of the House.

JAPAN.

WHEN the Asiatic continent is engrossing so much of our attention, we hope that some account of the inhabitants of the off-lying islands may not be unacceptable to our readers. We shall begin with the people of Japan, whose exclusiveness is not less than that of their opposite neighbours, the Chinese. The Japanese in his physical conformation presents unmistakable evidence of his Mongol blood. He exhibits the same peculiarity of eye that distinguishes the Chinese, but is described as possessing higher moral and physical energy than the latter. The appearance of the Japanese, both men and women, is pleasing. Strong, active, and rosy-faced, with abundance of black hair, the young Japanese may lay claim to personal beauty, but the pernicious habit of bandaging the body tightly renders the deportment of the women very awkward. The dress of both sexes is pretty much alike, consisting of a number of large, wide gowns, worn over each other, the garments of the poorer classes being made of linen, those of the richer formed of silk, with the family arms worked on the back of the outer gown, and all fastened round the waist with a girdle. The novelty of costume is perhaps what strikes us most in a foreigner, and in considering the "outer man" of the Japanese, we shall certainly find a marked difference from anything we are likely to see at home. It is for this reason we have commenced by describing their dress and personal appearance. The Japanese do not wear pockets, but supply the deficiency by means of the sleeves of the dress, which are enormously long and wide. These being closed at the bottom, the wearer drops in countless pieces of property, amongst which numerous squares of white paper form an important item. These serve the purposes of a pockethandkerchief, and after being used are dropped into the sleeve, en attendant a convenient opportunity of throwing them away. The Japanese are a very formal people and strict in the observance of etiquette. The men wear a scarf over the shoulder, which serves to regulate the profundity of the obeisance claimed by the different ranks, for the length of these scarfs is dependent on the rank of the wearer, and an inferior must, in saluting a superior, bow until the ends of his scarf touch the ground. Upon solemn occasions a cloak of ceremony is worn, but the most certain indication of rank is the wearing a sword. Men of the highest grade wear two, both on the same side, one placed a little higher than the other. Those of the second rank wear one, and no person enjoying the privilege of wearing a sword ever, under any circumstances, lays it aside. The humbler classes, amongst whom are included all persons engaged in commerce, are denied the dignity of wearing a sword.

Some of our European ladies would; no doubt, be shocked at the ill taste that presides at the toilette of a Japanese élégante, who blackens her teeth, plucks out the hair of her eyebrows, and dyes her lips purple, tinged with gold. On the other hand, it is possible that the Japanese belle might find the enormous crinolines and scanty bonnets of our ladies as far removed from the true standard of taste as we believe her practices to be. The Japanese women twine their long black hair turban-wise around the head. Their ornaments consist of pieces of

tortoise-shell, fifteen inches long, about the thickness of a man's thumb, stuck into the hair, and projecting on every side. The greater the number of these tortoise-shell pins that a lady can display, the more elegant is her toilette accounted.

But the most important article of Japanese dress, both to men and women, is the fan. No rank or profession obliges a man to forego the luxury of a fan. It is no impeachment to the gravity of the priest or to the valour of the soldier that he appears in public with a fan. The beggar and the fine lady are alike furnished with an article that seems indispensable to the existence of a Japanese. The mendicant imploring alms stretches forth his fan to receive your contribution, and wellbred visitors receive upon theirs the sweetmeats presented by their host. The science of the fan, as described so cleverly in the Spectator, is perfectly well known to the ladies of Japan, and the "nice conduct” of a fan is as much studied by the fops of Yedo as was the management of " a clouded cane" by English dandies in the days of Pope. The fan is the instrument of punishment in the hands of the schoolmaster, and the more solemn indication of royal displeasure, for when the Emperor orders a fan to be presented to any of his high officers upon a particular-shaped salver, that man's doom is sealed: as he stretches forth his hand to touch the fatal present, his head is struck off.

The empire of Japan consists of a number of islands, of which the three principal-Niphon, Kinsin, and Sikokf-comprise an area of 90,000 square miles. If we take into consideration the number of small islands lying about, with the dependencies of the Loo-Choo islands to the south, the Kurile archipelago and Yezo to the north, we shall find the empire of Japan extending from the 24th to the 50th degree north latitude. In this extent we shall, of course, find a great difference of climate, and consequent variety of production. The southern islands teem with all the rich vegetation of the tropics, and the northern present the fruits of the temperate zone. The internal traffic is very great; but the Japanese are a jealous people, and shun intercourse with strangers. So exclusive are they, that their ships, which are abundantly sufficient for internal navigation and for the coasting trade, are built so weak in the stern that it would be impossible for them to bear a heavy sea. This form of craft is said to be prescribed by law, in order to prevent the possibility of the Japanese seamen undertaking a long voyage.

The name "Japan" is derived from a Chinese word signifying "the origin of the sun.' Of the early history of the country we know little or nothing, the records of the native writers being wrapped in myths and obscured by fiction. As the political is involved in the religious history of the country, we shall give a short account of the native traditions. According to the ancient Japanese theologians, there arose from primæval chaos a self-created supreme god, whose abode was placed in the highest heavens. This being, dwelling in a quiescent state, was far removed from all cares. In process of time there arose two creator gods, who occupied themselves in forming the universe. This task they accomplished in great part, but this earth of ours escaped their notice, and remained in a chaotic state. The universe in this state was governed by seven gods, each succeeding the other.

The last of these deities created the earth, and he did it after this manner. He was one day talking to his queen (he was the only one of these deities who had married), when he said to her, "There ought to be somewhere a habitable earth; let us look for it under the waters that are boiling beneath us." Upon this he dipped his jewelled sceptre into the water, and, as he drew it forth, the drops trickling adown condensed and formed an island. This, according to local tradition, was the island of Kiusin, the largest of the eight that constituted the world, or, in other words, the empire of Japan. The reigning deity then created ten million gods, and, as the annalists have it, "ten thousand things." The government of all these he committed to his favourite child, a daughter, the goddess of the sun.

The reign of this goddess was by no means so long as that of her predecessors, for instead of myriads, she only reigned about a quarter million of years. Her successors are called the terrestrial gods, and governed the world about two million years. The last of these deities married a mortal woman, and from her son descended the mikados, the emperors of Japan. The personal respect paid to the mikado is unbounded; he is denominated "the son of heaven;" but modern writers deny his power to be despotic, asserting that the form of government in Japan is feudal, and that all, even the mikado himself, are amenable to the laws. But the tyranny of custom prevails so strongly that a Japanese could scarcely understand the word liberty as we use it.

Of the customs of a court so jealously exclusive it would be difficult to speak with certainty; but from the accounts of the early writers, who visited the country before the laws forbidding the entrance of strangers were so stringent, we have gleaned some particulars. The mikado reigned by divine right, as descendant of the goddess of the

sun.

The claim was never disputed; but, some centuries back, a powerful chief, a kind of mayor of the palace, became possessed of the actual sovereignty, and got himself elected ziogoon, a kind of vicegerent to the mikado, to whom there remained henceforth only the shadow of his former authority. Nor did the successors of the mikado ever recover their power, for the office of ziogoon was made hereditary. The Japanese, however, recognize no emperor but the mikado. He was deprived of nearly all temporal power under the pretext that the sanctity of his character would suffer profanation by his bestowing a thought upon sublunary affairs. In his sacred character of priest, or, more properly, divinity of the empire, he every day sits for a prescribed number of hours upon his throne, remaining immovable all the time, lest he might bring ruin upon any part of his kingdom, his perfect immobility being supposed capable of sustaining the empire in undisturbed happiness and peace. After concluding his seance, he descends from the throne, upon which the imperial crown is placed as a substitute for the presence of the monarch, being supposed to possess, under such circumstances, the same virtue.

That the emperor enjoys the reputation of a semi-divine nature there can be no doubt, for it is believed that the gods annually wait upon him and spend a month at his court. This period is popularly designated the month "without gods." The temples are, during that