introduced another class, perfectly dis- himself with a somewhat vague approxitinct in its position and in its nature mation to the truth. The system of livrets, -the literary dangerous class.' How-books analogous to the pocket-ledgers of ever interesting this division of society our soldiers, afforded him little or no assistmay be, however great the danger to be ance; the possession of such books is not apprehended from it, and the necessity compulsory upon the working classes; and therefore of studying it with care, still its of the men who come to Paris from the connection with the real and direct object Departments, bringing their books with of the prescribed work was not such as to them, a large proportion merely have them have rendered its introduction either ne- examined by the Prefecture of Police, and cessary or expedient; and it is evident that cannot be induced to exchange them for the propounders of the question were of Paris books. The returns, therefore, of this opinion. It is less ably treated than the number of livrets issued afford no data the other divisions of the subject; less by which to ascertain the actual number of philosophically and profoundly understood operatives resident in the capital. The by the author; and-the natural conse- approximation at which M. Frégier arrives quence of this-less fully and clearly is as follows:brought out to the reader. We think also that some of the other parts of the book where interpolations have taken place-all of which are carefully noted by the author are, comparatively at least, deficient in interest and importance.

The one great principle, to the illustration of which M. Frégier has addressed himself, is this: that in society, and amongst its lower classes more especially, vice leads to crime, and crime to danger. This subject he treats under a fourfold division. 1st. The statistics of the vicious and dangerous classes. 2d. Their manners, habits, and modes of life. 3d. The preservatives against the 'invasions of vice. 4th. The remedies to be employed to lessen and control it. The author fixes his point of view at Paris.

'The causes of crime and its effects are,' he says, 'everywhere the same; the mode of committing it and the characters of those who commit it vary with every country and every place: but if its nature and effects, as developed in full perfection in Paris, be carefully and fully analyzed, the information thence resulting will, by easy induction, be rendered applicable to the other great towns in France; and also, in a considerable degree to all the principal cities of other nations.'

M. Frégier having assumed, as an admitted fact, that it is from the poor and vicious of the operative classes that the crimi nal portion of the community is chiefly recruited, it was necessary for him, in the first place, to ascertain the total numerical strength of those classes. Notwithstanding the numerous and well-organized police of Paris, and its elaborate system of civil administration, the functions of which are far more searching and extensive than with us, there appears to be great difficulty in exactly ascertaining the numerical value of the different classes of society; and indeed, after all his exertions to accomplish this object, M. Frégier was compelled to content

There exists in Paris, of male operatives, a number varying from 75,000 to 105,000. Of these 50,000 are married, or live with female companions. Of female operatives the number is about 60,000: of these 40,000 are the wives or domesticated companions of workmen. Of apprentices the number is about 100,000, being assumed at the rate of two to each of the 50,000 workmen who live as family men. The number of chiffonniers is about 4000, one half of whom are men, the other half women and children. The above numbers give a total, varying according to the season of the year, the activity of work, especially of building, and other causes, of from 239,000 to 269,000 persons; and on this number M. Frégier bases his calculations.

We cannot but demur as to the validity of this mode of procedure. Almost every page of his volumes proves the close resemblance between the vices and crimes of London and Paris; and certainly we should consider as radically defective any calculations regarding our metropolitan population which were limited to its operatives only, even taking that appellation in its most extended sense. In all great cities there are numerous sections of the lower population, whose employments do not come under that category. To instance a few only: persons employed about public vehicles of all descriptions, or with horses; boatmen; soldiers; the ranks of the police; the extremely numerous classes of servants, male and female, and more especially male servants out of place-a division of society which, we conceive, furnishes a contingent to crime larger in proportion to its numbers than any other. All these, and many others, should have been included; and the fallaciousness of not doing so will at once be apparent, when we consider that the total population of Paris exceeds 900,000 persons; and that conse

quently the classes to which M. Frégier extrêmes par leur nature, se touchent dans restricts himself are considerably less than leurs effets: elles aboutissent toutes deux one-third of the whole. au crime.'

6

Of these classes of society, thus arbitra- Many of the individuals of the dangerous rily selected, M. Frégier supposes that the class belong to several of its divisions: the portion habitually devoted to the two kin- same man is often gambler, bully, smugdred vices of idleness and intemperance is gler, sharper, pickpocket, and robber-the about one-third; viz. 35,000 men and 20,- receiver of stolen goods is frequently a pro000 women-he takes no account of the fessed sharper; and many loose women are apprentices-and that of these numbers, also robbers and receivers of stolen goods. again, one-half of the men and two-thirds It is this multiplicity of functions which has of the women are thoroughly vicious; as baffled every attempt to ascertain the nuare also one-half-2000-of the chiffon-merical strength of the several departniers, men, women, and children; making ments of vice. One thing only is certain, altogether a total of about 33,000 persons, that the gamblers, including not merely who constitute the very dregs of the popu- those who are such by profession, but the lation. Omitting any enumeration of the other bad characters who addict themselves contingent of vice afforded by the remain-to this vice, are the most numerous division der of the lower classes, those which, as of the whole. The contingent which the he expresses it, are strangers to the in- middle and higher classes furnish to the didustrious arts,' he next proceeds to state vision of sharpers and gamblers is estimatthat the criminal part of the middle and ed at 100. upper ranks-les classes aisées'—may be taken as about equal to one-tenth of the above, that is 3300 persons. At this number he arrives by a different process. The annual average of criminal prosecutions in Paris is 3500, and about one-half of these end in convictions. The average annual number of convictions in the middle and upper classes is ascertained to be 157, which is very nearly one-eleventh of the whole; he therefore assumes that the total numbers of the thoroughly vicious in the lower and upper classes bear to each other the same proportion of ten to one; and consequently that, as the former amount to 33,000, the latter may be taken at 3300. All this appears to us to be very vague and arbitrary; and the more so from the palpable error which we have pointed out in the first element upon which it is based.

The number of registered prostitutes is 3800-of unregistered or free, about 4000. One in twenty of these women is a foreigner. Paris and its environs give one-fourth; the rest are from the provinces; and the proportions which they furnish decrease as they are more remote, except in the case of some of the northern manufacturing districts, and certain garrison towns, the supply from which is disproportionally large.

'On ne désigne pas des localités qui alimentent le libertinage plus particulièrement que malheureuse Irlande, décimée par la misère, au d'autres, comme cela existe à Londres, où la profit de la débauche, envoie un si grand nombre de prostituées qu'il est hors de toute proportion avec les contingens fournis par les autres parties de la Grand Bretagne.'

Such, however, being assumed as the We are sorry to see the universal prejunumerical strength of the vicious class, the dice of the French against England peepauthor next proceeds to estimate the coming out in the statistics of such a book as ponent parts of the dangerous class. These this. Every magistrate in London well are the gamblers, the prostitutes, the men knows that what is here said as to Ireland whom they attach to themselves either as is not only untrue, but flagrantly and dialovers or bullies-souteneurs-or in the dou- metrically opposed to the truth. ble capacity; the mistresses of the houses The number of the mistresses of houses of ill-fame; the vagabonds, smugglers, of ill-fame is about 372, one-half only of sharpers, pickpockets, robbers of both whom have licensed houses. Each prostisexes; and the receivers of stolen goods, tute having, as an invariable rule, her lover of both sexes also. The predominant vices or souteneur, these men-and they are the of all these are idleness and debauchery-vilest of the vile-amount to 7800. Nearly the power which puts them in motion is all of them belong to one or more of the greediness of gain. Some of these per- other categories of vice, being sharpers, sons follow useful occupations, and many thieves, or pickpockets, and gamblers also, of them with especial ability; but they as a matter of course. labour only to obtain the means of indulg- From a similar blending of professions, ing their vices. La fainéantise et l'acti- it is impossible to ascertain the number of vité vicieuse,' says M. Frégier, quoique vagabonds who come within the dangerous

class. Adults and children, they may be taken-limiting the title to its strictest sense -at about 1500.

sick. The proportion of cases is very large in which a long period of cohabitation takes place before marriage. If a young couple find that they live happily together, sooner or later their ever is made between the children born before union is rendered legal, and no distinction whatand after marriage; all alike are sent to school until the age of twelve, and then are bound apprentices. The operatives in Paris are generally paid once a fortnight; the more orderly give over at once to their wives the whole of their wages, with the exception of a trifling sum for the half; whilst others retain to themselves the own personal expenses; some give them control of the whole of their earnings, and allow their wives to dispose as they please of their own wages. The exhausting nature of the work to which many are exposed demands a liberal diet, and still more a sufficient but moderate portion of wholesome wine, which to French artificer is one of the chief necessaries renders him cheerful-it chases away his of life: it not only repairs his strength, but it cares.'

a

their

The receivers of stolen goods are about 600. Adding to these specific divisions the Protean mass of gamblers, smugglers, sharpers, pickpockets, and robbers, the author fixes the total amount of the dangerous class at 30,072; making, with the 33,000 previously ascertained as being the thoroughly depraved portion of the working class, a total of 63,072 persons of both sexes and all ages, composing the entire mass of Parisian crime and vice. But in this statement he omits to include the vicious of the middle and upper classes, which he has previously fixed as amounting to 3300. If these be added, the total number of persons either criminal or utterly vicious, and therefore dangerous or tending to danger, is 66,372; being somewhat more than one-fourteenth of the entire population of Paris. Such are the numerical results to which our author's calculation leads us. We must again remark, that they appear to proceed on a very partial basis. The total population of Paris in 1836-the period to which these volumes refer—was 909,126: the only classes of which he treats are the operatives, 265,000, the dangerous class, 30,072, and a portion of the middle classes, say 33,000, in all 328,072. If we estimate that the mid- 'The operative,' says M. Frégier, 'rises bedle and upper classes amount altogether to fore the day; he goes to his workshop, on his 200,000—a number probably far above the route he meets an old companion, whom he has not seen for some time; an affectionate greettruth-there will remain no less than 381,- ing takes place; and "Let us have a glass to054 persons in the lower walks of life, to-gether" are among the first words which they tally excluded from our author's calcula

tions.

The second division of the work commences with a general view of the operative classes, for it is of the operatives only that he still continues to speak:

Those,' he says-we shall abridge rather than translate his pages-those who study them minutely and without prejudice will find among their ranks many examples of virtue, They are good-natured, anxious to serve their comrades, devoted to the interests of their employers; and charitable, narrow as their means are, not only to their fellow-workmen when out of employment or sick, but to all who are near them, to all especially who lodge in the same house. They labour to reclaim their vicious comrade; they visit and console him in prison. When a manufacturer or a master artisan has the skill and good judgment to obtain the love of those whom he employs, there is no exertion they will not make to serve him. The warmth of heart of the operative, renders him always eager to give his aid and to expose himself to danger, when accident occurs in the street, or casual tumults arise. There are no

bounds to the sacrifices which they make to procure comforts for their wives and children when

This is the bright, but, alas! the smaller division of the picture. The proportion of the entire class which adopts and maintains this regular and orderly course of life is sadly limited. The attraction of the public house is one of the most fatal to the labouring classes, and more than anything else decides their lot.

both utter, for the idea is always uppermost in their minds. They talk of work-of their masters-the conversation goes on, glass in hand— again their masters are criticised—their several and peculiar bad qualities-how little they know how to conduct their trade-their stinginess-their irregularity in paying their workmen-their severity, which is declared to be beyond all bounds. As a matter of course each of the orators deems it a point of honour to "stand his turn." The philippics continue-from the masters they descend to the overseers and foremen; and from them to their fellow-workmen. The hour of labour arrives; one of the two friends fears the reproaches of his master if he enters the workshop too late, and prefers losing a third of his day; he seeks to entice his companion to tarry with him, and proposes a third round of glasses; the prudence of the other by degrees gives way: they settle themselves at table; they breakfast; they become heated with wine; and not the third part, but the whole of the day is lost; and they may deem themselves fortunate if they are in a state of work on the

morrow.'

We have given this scene, not because it is painted in a lively manner, and is characteristic of the gay, talkative disposition of

the French mechanic, but because it is one wish of every girl's heart in the lower of never-ceasing recurrence. From such ranks of life; and the good conduct which casual beginnings of indulgence and idle- accompanies this effort often secures its ness, the author traces up the career of the success. The fate, however, even of these operative, who gives way to intemperance, young women depends greatly upon the until he becomes an habitual drunkard, re- continued guardianship of their parents. gardless of his wife and children, lost to If left to themselves, they must possess a all self-respect, selling everything he pos- rare degree of good sense and prudence to sesses, even his garments, to supply the resist the temptations and ill examples by means of gratifying his passion for wine; which they are surrounded. The influence and frequently labouring for days together, of such examples may also be powerfully half-clothed, with no other aim or intention checked by the character of the master and than, when he obtains payment for his work, those in authority under him. If they do again to abandon himself to unrestrained their duty, there is external decorum, at debauchery. These are the men-and many of them are eminently skilful workmen-who gradually become entangled in the meshes of crime. Drunkenness leads to all other vices; and in the end conquers and absorbs them all.'

least, within the establishment; and in this case the greatest danger which the young workwoman incurs is in her out-of-doors connections with her fellow-labourers. But if the master is occupied solely by the ardour of gain, and either does not regard or The most efficient checks to this course does not understand the important moral of ruin are to be found in the good sense situation which he fills, the case is far and good management of the masters and otherwise: the unfortunate girl will find their foremen. The kindness and paternal herself at once, and without any power of admonitions of the one, the good example retreat, in an atmosphere of avowed guiltand strict discipline of the other, can con- amid companions who make it a task and a trol and keep down the passions and hab- pride to render each new-comer as depraved its of those under their charge, to an ex- as themselves. At first she is shocked and tent which could scarcely be believed, were depressed by this; but too frequently, as it it not proved by the wide difference which becomes familiar to her, it undermines her exists in the characters of the workmen-not principles. It is at this crisis, this dangerone, but all, or nearly all-belonging to illous entrance into life, that the vigilance of or well-conducted establishments. her parents is most necessary; they should

and alarm; they should labour to confirm her virtuous intentions, and at any sacrifice to themselves they should remove her from a region of guilt to one of decency and good morals. If they neglect to do this, she is lost.

If a strong sense of the moral duties at-study the slightest indication of melancholy tached to its situation is important in the master who has men under him, it becomes still more so on him on whose prudence and paternal solicitude the virtue, the respectability, and the happiness of the female artisan depend. Far more than with men does the well-being of women in the lower The avarice of parents is a frequent walks of life depend on their strict regu- source of ruin to their children. Many of larity of morals. In many families among them appropriate to the payment of the dothe working classes order and economy mestic expenses the whole of the daughform the rule of action. The daughters learn ter's wages, and leave her without the to place all their moderate hopes of happi- means of clothing herself as well as others ness in a life of unintermitting but tranquil of her class. Smartness of dress is, labour; as much as possible they perform amongst the female working-class, as their work at home, and under the eye of amongst all other classes of women, one of their parents: if it be necessary that they the first necessaries of life. If unduly curshould labour in a crowded workshop, they tailed in this, the young person gets discarry with them their good habits; they are satisfied with her condition: she feels huconstant in their attendance, and exact in miliated, and takes an aversion to her home. the performance of their daily task. The Whilst her mind is in this state she falls young girls, whose characters have been an easy prey to the addresses of the first formed by such domestic training, seldom young man-her fellow labourer-who apon festival-days leave their homes except pears to compassionate her situation-acunder the protection of their parents. cepts his proposal to live with him; and at Following the example of their mother, once, and without a single word of intimathey hoard up by dint of assiduous exer- tion, quits her parents' house. These tion a little marriage-portion, which is to separations of parents and children are of aid them in obtaining a husband, the first very frequent occurrence; and it is the

There are two marked divisions in the female operatives at Paris-those who belong to shops and workrooms, and those who are employed in manufactories. The latter class are far inferior in education, manners, and language to the former.

harshness and injustice of the parents which | together-and at that age when the spirit lead to the greater portion of them. of imitation is the strongest, a very few days suffice to fix the character of nearly all of them. Their older companions, totally uneducated, and unrestrained by any moral influence, make it their pastime, by laboured and exaggerated impurity of language, to corrupt the children who work by their side. It is seldom the master of the establishment and his deputies pay any attention to all this, engrossed as they are in their one great aim, the execution of a certain quantity of work in a certain space of time; and blind to the fact, self-evident as it is, that morality is the best foundation of order and discipline. In nearly all these establishments, le vice,' says M. Frégier, siège à côté du travail.'

The wages of the young women employed in shops and workrooms seldom exceed twenty-five or thirty sous a day, Those who reside with their parents, and are properly treated by them, are comfortably off; and it is they who form the virtuous portion of the class. But those who are harshly used at home, and those who, having no parents, must look to their own slender resources alone for lodging, food, and clothes, are sadly pinched by poverty. It is this deficiency of means, this actual want, which wrecks the virtue of so many of them. A young and inexperienced girl, placed in this position, feels the necessity of assistance and support: her heart expands towards any one who addresses her with kindness: if it be a young man of her own class, she readily attaches herself to him as to a friend and protector, and, as a matter of course, a lover: they swear eternal fidelity, and an illicit connection is formed, which very frequently lasts for many years, and not rarely ends in marriage. Immoral as are these unions, they are looked upon with indulgence and kindly interest, as having their origin in real affection on both sides; and this at least is certain, that in the great majority of instances a far worse course is pursued. Pressed by penury, a casual temptation or a few deceitful words are all that is required to turn many such girls from the path of virtue: again and again they are deluded and deserted; many of them become mothers; and, when abandoned by their lovers, are driven by the combined pressure of actual want and maternal tenderness to throw themselves into the abyss of degradation. It is well known also that many do this to procure the means of existence for their sick and aged pa

rents.

Among these girls chastity is almost unknown;' many of them become mothers at a very early age. Without shame or repugnance they enter the lying-in hospital; the maternal feelings are scarcely known to them-they separate themselves from their infant without a pang, and reenter the manufactory with the full determination of resuming the same guilty course. Of those who have families, not more than one-third are married. It is only necessary to watch the exit of the gangs from the manufactories: boisterous, grossly indecent, insolent, ready to overwhelm with abuse any modest woman who may pass near them, disgust and compassion must fill the mind of every well-disposed person who observes them. Many are drunkards; and it is in ardent spirits that they indulge more frequently than in wine. On Sunday and on idle-Monday, nothing is more common than to see young cotton spinners, half-clothed and emaciated, coming out of the brandy-shop completely drunk; often hanging on the arm of their half-intoxicated mothers. Whilst these densely-peopled nurseries remain as they are, the ranks of vice and crime will continue crowded to overflowing.

It is in Paris only that the chiffonniers, or rubbish-hunters, form a distinct and specific class :

It is of the better class of female opera- thirty years has added to the dignity of this proThe extension of industry during the last tives that M. Frégier has hitherto spoken: fession, which is alike followed by men, women, those who belong to manufactories are a and children. It requires no apprenticeship, no far less fortunate class. A large proportion previous course of study, no expensive outfit: of workmen, including even those who are a large and compactly-shaped basket, a stick the most regular, when their families be- with a hook at the end of it, and a lantern, are the entire stock-in-trade of this singular species come numerous, have no other resource than to send their daughters, at the age of and according to the season of the year, from of labourers. The men gain, on an average, seven or eight, to the manufactory. Once twenty-five to forty sous a-day; but to do this admitted into these crowded establish- they are obliged to make three rounds, two by ments-in most of which both sexes workday and one during the night; their labour com