that debating belongs to the English courses as a vital part of the classroom work, necessitating the teacher's supervision from beginning to end. A few suggestions are important.

Debating is an exercise in reasoning. A simple study of rudimentary logic would be helpful. The fallacy of an opponent's argument can then be challenged.

Arguments should be based on fact not mere opinion.

Facts should be weighed by conditions that caused them. Sources should be carefully evaluated and accurately stated or readily available when needed.

The topic must be very closely defined, and all arguments must deal with the topic as defined.

The practice of writing briefs (discussed on page 234) is important for clear, logical, and fairly complete presentation of arguments.

Pupils should be assigned lessons in well-known debates and practice constructing their debates in agreement with the models selected.

At first it is necessary for the pupil to memorize the opening speeches, but the aim should be to develop fluent and logical extemporaneous speaking. This requires confidence, much knowledge, organization, and a fairly rich vocabulary. Speaking extemporaneously is a habit formed by attentive repetition or frequent practice in every subject. Help toward this end is derived from more elaborate answers to questions in every course.

Rebuttal depends upon concentrated attention to everything the opponent says. The keen debater will detect misapplications or misstatements of facts, wrong inferences, and poor judgment in the stressing of unimportant points. Practice in meeting arguments, criticizing statements, challenging opinions, and conclusions should form part of the pupil's work in every course of the high school. It involves thinking, and this in turn rests upon rich information. The critical attitude develops slowly, but it should

be a fascinating part of the teacher's work to excite pupils to criticize in a lively, fair, impersonal, and constructive manner.

d. Artistic Reading. This has taken the place of the oldfashioned declamations or recitations, with profit to everybody concerned. Reading is a fine art and all art is interpretation. To read well depends upon the rudiments of sentence structure and sympathy with the author's point of view. Facial expression, simple gestures, restrained emotionalism, suggestive intonation, appropriate attitude that radiates an atmosphere, are all essential to the artistic performance in this field.

Besides the rules suggested under public speaking the following are important in this connection :

Understand as well as possible what the author means.

Picture as vividly as imagination based on knowledge permits what each character looks like and probably feels under the circumstances of the story.

Avoid overacting, ranting, tragical postures. Select for reading what you can do well. Never attempt a reading that others give if you are reasonably sure it is beyond your ability.

If a book or manuscript is used, know most of it without referring to the book. Turn the pages very quietly and as secretly as possible.

Simple stage setting, such as table, chair, lamp, is helpful, but depend mostly on your own interpretation to convey the picture.

If your memory fails at any point, be determined to remain calm; invent appropriate phrases while you approach nearer to the prompter or the book. Never pause awkwardly. Act under all circumstances. Most of the audience will not detect the change of words, and those who do will sympathize with your difficulty.

Select hopeful readings; avoid the morbid, the trashy, the repel

lent. Make your performance a contribution to others' welfare as much as to their enjoyment.

The program should be arranged on the following principles, stated in their order of application on the program:

PART I

1. Brief, cheerful, but not humorous selection.

2. A humorous reading — a George Ade fable, for example.

3. A simple romance Gilbert Parker's

Sweethearts."

4. A thoughtful reading - Maeterlinck's "Blind Men" or Van Dyke's "Blue Flower."

PART II

5. A pleasing bit of philosophy - "Mr. Dooley." 6. A stirring selection - "Laska."

7. A string of good jokes or a ghost story.

8. A brisk, happy, and also meaningful selection.

The program should last about an hour and a half. Selections can be abbreviated when necessary, and often for public reading it is advisable to make such excisions of long descriptions full of confusing detail.

GENERAL SUMMARY

An attempt has been made in this chapter to indicate some of the ways and means whereby courses in written and oral composition may be organized to serve legitimately cultural and practical ends. Supervising the study of English is, after all, principally a matter of supplying wholesome motivation and directing the pupil in worthwhile applications all along the line. The writer feels that what is needed is constructive

criticism and courage to break with the past in English work. What has been suggested in this chapter, especially, aims to stimulate teachers to make their courses different from others in manner of approach, development, and application. English is practical and must be supervised mainly from this point of view.

Composition work is much like modeling in clay. There must be the raw material, properly mixed, deposited on the board, roughly pinched, pounded, and thumbed here and there before the finer work begins. First knowledge; then careful selection of topics of individual interest, the rough sketching of the first draft; and then frequent revision, improvement, and finally achievement. This is true of both the written and the oral forms of composition.

CHAPTER X

SUPERVISING THE STUDY OF HISTORY

I. THE PUPIL'S ATTITUDE

Ir is the irony of educational fate that what ought to be the most fascinating subject in the school program is all too often regarded by pupils as uninteresting and even useless. It is a mere platitude to remind ourselves of the fact that the average and normal high school pupil is deeply moved by adventure and romance. An historical novel or romance with royalty and courtiers, beautiful princesses and bold soldierheroes appeals to the social and sex instincts of young people. This is granted, and under proper conditions should be encouraged. But can any novel or romance be more thrilling than many periods of history? Modern industry, invention, institutions, and customs originated and have been evolved under circumstances "stranger than fiction," but the glory of this fact somehow fails to arouse the high school pupil.

1. Pupils' Reasons for Disliking History. Wayland 1 cites a few reasons for pupils' disliking history. The pupils themselves gave these reasons:

I did not find it interesting.

I had never seen any historical places.
I did not know why I was studying it.

1 How to Teach American History, Chapter XVII, 1915.