Marine BiotoxinsThis paper provides an extensive review of different aspects of five shellfish-poisoning syndromes (paralytic, diarrhoeic, amnesic, neurologic and azapiracid), as well as one fish-poisoning syndrome (ciguatera fish poisoning), and discusses in detail the causative toxins produced by marine organisms, chemical structures and analytical methods of the toxins, habitat and occurrence of the toxin-producing organisms, case studies and existing regulations. Based on this analysis, risk assessments are carried out for each of the toxins, and recommendations are elaborated to improve the management of these risks in order to reduce the harmful effect of these toxins on public health. |
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accumulation Alexandrium algae algal algal blooms analysis animals antibody Apeldoorn areas assay azaspiracid biotoxins bivalves bloom blue mussels breve brevetoxins caused cells cells/litre ciguatera ciguatoxin coast coastal waters concentrations consumption containing copepods cultured depuration detected detoxification developed diarrhoea diarrhoeic digestive gland dinoflagellate Dinophysis domoic acid dose effects Egmond ELISA EU-NRL exposure extracts fish Fouw Hallegraeff hepatopancreas human ICES countries injection intoxication intraperitoneal isolated LC-MS liver maitotoxins marine meat method mg DA/kg mg/kg bw mice minutum molluscs monitoring programme mouse bioassay multiseries muscle mussels Mytilus OA and DTX1 occurred okadaic acid oral outbreaks oysters paralytic shellfish poisoning percent phytoplankton plankton presence produced Pseudo-nitzschia PSP toxins pungens f Quilliam rats red tide regulatory limit reported samples scallops seafood shellfish tissue species studies symptoms tamarensis temperature toxic toxin levels Yasumoto yessotoxin Zealand µg STX µg/g µg/kg