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Normandy, old Tancred had determined that his paternal estate of Hauteville, whole and entire, should descend to Godfrey, surnamed Riduld, the eldest of those sons who had staid at home. The allodial property of Tancred being too small to be divided among so many heirs, he himself encouraged his younger sons to follow the example of their elder brothers. Thus Robert Wiscard, and with him, as it appears, his brothers Humfrey and Tancred, now found themselves among the foreigners, who, in the year 1047, arrived in Italy, which soon was to resound with the fame of "Guiscard, the crafty count." And not only the Italian chroniclers were soon to vie in celebrating him, but his name was to be the terror and admiration of the far East." He was, they said, the strongest man in the whole world, who, when falling with his steed, in spite of his heavy panoply, was able readily to rise again, and at once, and with equal dexterity, to wield in the right hand his sword and his lance in the left." He carried his arms and his glory across the sea to Greece, where Anna Comnena, the princess, who certainly was prepossessed against the dangerous enemy of her father, often, contrary to her will, expresses the admiration with which his heroic actions inspired her. Although she bitterly complains of his cruelty and thirst of conquest, still she owns, that he was an Achilles in combat and an Ulysses in cunning; that he, with the firmness of a rock, executed his designs; and that he, like all noble-minded souls, above all, aspired to independence and liberty. She commends the strength and gracefulness of his person; his thundering voice, which, on the battle field, would force myriads to flee; his lofty stature, which made him look down upon the tallest of the Normans; his hawk's eye, sparkling with fire; his broad shoulders; his ruddy complexion and golden locks;" and the image of his manly beauty has taken such a hold on the imagination of the princess, that when celebrating the noble appearance of a hero, she calls him handsome as a knight from Normandy.

Robert, on his arrival in Italy, soon met with an opportunity to distinguish himself in the never-ceasing feuds of the Normans, and particularly in their successful war with Pope Leo the Ninth, in 1053. But

the greatest renown he earned only after his conquests in Calabria, which then, for a long time, remained the great battle-field of the Normans. William Bras-de-Fer was the first among the Northern knights, who, during his skirmishes with the Greeks, had entered this country; afterwards Drogo had penetrated as far as the valleys near the river Cratis, and built the castle of San Marco, which he now granted to his brother Robert, thus giving him an opportunity, with the point of his sword, to carve out for himself an inheritance in those beautiful and fertile mountain regions. With zeal did Robert devote himself to the war, and his dominion soon began to extend with the number of his knights, who were augmented by degrees, all new comers among the Normans preferring the booty of Calabria to the quiet life in the castles of Apulia, which had already been divided among the earlier emigrants. Yet at the commencement of the Greek war, when the followers of Robert were fewer, and he often suffered the greatest distress, his life resembled that of an Italian bandit more than anything else." Sometimes he surprised Greek merchants, who travelled unprotected with their precious goods, and dire necessity forced him so often to make forays into the villages near the castle of San Marco, that the unhappy inhabitants fled and left him surrounded by a desert. The Norman historians Jeffrey Malaterra and William of Apulia, who, with a quite particular predilection, dwell on this earlier part of the life of Robert, have, with great minuteness, preserved the memory of these adventures and robberies of their hero, and relate the cunning with which he knew how to extricate himself from the most perilous situations, when his power was insufficient. Thus they tell how, during an interview with Peter of Turra, a wealthy merchant from Bisignano, he suddenly seized the stout Calabrian round his waist and carried him off to his followers. This exploit procured him a rich ransom, and his surname the Wiscard, or cunning," which was first given him by Jerard of Albergo.**

Another curious tale of the chroniclers, reminds us of a Northern tradition. They say that Robert "the cunning," desiring to take possession of a rich and strongly

fortified Greek monastery, sent word to the monks, that one of his warriors having died, he solicited a sepulchre in consecrated ground for the corpse. This request being granted, unarmed Normans carried the coffin up the steep path to the convent, where the friars, chanting hymns, met them to receive the dead body, which, according to the Norman usage, lay enveloped in a cere-cloth. But on a sudden the dead warrior rose in the bier, distributed to the Normans the weapons which lay concealed in the coffin, and thus they forced the terrified Kalayers to surrender their strong hold without any resistance. It is evidently the same expedient which Harald Haardraade made use of, according to the Heimskringla, during his expedition to Sicily, a few years prior to this event. The Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus, ascribes the same stratagem to King Trode the First, and other chroniclers to Hasting, the Rover.". Nay, we may almost be tempted to suspect that the Normans, whose whole history represents a continual series of adventures, by new deeds, revived, as it were, the memory of that singular mode of action. At least we find the same successful application of this stratagem ascribed afterwards, not only to the Norman Duke, Robert of Apulia, on his taking the castle Gursol," in the year 1147, but even repeated nearly a century later by the Roman Emperor, Frederick the Second, of Hohenstaufen; who, in Sicily, had adopted the Norman manners and usages, and who, in the year 1239, took possession of the convent of St. Casino by means of the same artifice. During the subsequent crusades, we meet, a few years later, with another imitation of this curious stratagem, by which Bohemund, the gallant and Northern-minded son of Robert Wiscard, contrived to elude the ambushes of the Greeks, on his passage from Syria back to Italy. It is reported, that he caused the rumor of his death to be spread abroad; that he ordered the ship in which he sailed to be decked out in mourning, and that he had on board a coffin, in which he lay down whenever the ship landed on the coasts of the Greek empire."

Robert having been reinforced by the Calabrians, who, for so many years, had suffered hard oppression by the Greeks,

and now, by degrees, joined him, began to prosecute the war on a larger scale, when he unexpectedly was called away to Apulia, where his brother Humfrey was dying. Though formerly feuds had existed between them, the dying count, forgetting their enmity, now confided the county of Lavello to his brother's care, as a guardian for his sons. After the death of Humfrey, Robert was elected President of the Norman Republic, and, besides, deprived the sons of Humfrey of the possessions of their father. Not daring to withdraw too far from Malfi, on account of the opposition he met with, he charged Roger, his youngest brother, to advance with the army to the strait of Messina.

Roger had but lately left Normandy, where, excited by the reports of the rising glory of his elder brothers, he, with impatience, waited for the time when he might wield the lance and go to Italy himself. In company with him travelled his brothers William, Malger and Godfrey, the latter of whom did not suffer himself to be detained from the Italian expedition by the will of his father, who desired that the feudal castle of Hauteville should descend to him. Of all the twelve brothers, only Serlon and Alverade could, with the utmost difficulty, be prevailed upon to remain at home." The last appears to have propagated the noble family in Normandy, while Serlon, whose valiant deeds are not forgotten by the Norman chroniclers of Italy, followed William the Conqueror on the expedition to England, at the same time that his own son Serlon and his brothers fought gallantly against the Arabs in Sicily.

In the year 1058 Roger, at the head of sixty Norman knights, penetrated into the interior of Calabria, where he crossed the mountains and descending to the bay of Santa Euphemia, subdued all the country as far as Monte Leone, by the mere terror of the Norman arms. Having erected a fortified camp on the highest ridge of the Calabrian mountains, and there left part of his warriors, he hastened back to Robert Wiscard, in order to transmit to him the large sums he had gathered, and then accompanied his brother in his campaigns against the Greeks. But the growing influence of Roger soon excited the jealousy of Robert Wiscard, and a dispute arose

was plundered by Roger, who, being faithfully assisted by his brother William, made frequent forays into the possessions of Robert from the castle of Scalea; but found himself involved in such a distress during the contest, that he was even obliged once, at night, to steal horses from the stables in the neighborhood of Malfi. This fact is related by Jeffrey Malaterra, whose chronicle, like many others written about the Normans, was called forth by the love of truth of the Norman chieftains themselves, and who, on this occasian, expressly remarks, that he did not intend to cite this trait for the dishonor of Roger, but that he, according to Roger's own command, has mentioned his poverty and unfair practices, that all the world might know by what immense exertions he at last had succeeded, from extreme obscurity, in rising to the pinnacle of power and glory."

In autumn, 1060, the brothers at last were reconciled, and the first result of their accommodation was the conquest of Reggio, which they had besieged with their united forces. On the fall of Reggio, the Normans hailed Robert Wiscard Duke of Apulia and Calabria, and Roger now undertook his first visit to Sicily. With a small retinue, he embarked late in the fall, 1060, in a few open barks, and sailed across the strait to the island, which he reconnoitred during a short incursion, before he returned to Calabria. He found the Arabs no longer united and powerful. Already before the middle of the eleventh century, the connection with the Fatimites in Africa had been broken: the Emirs did not possess force to maintain their authority, the island was distracted by civil feuds, and the mild sway of the Fatimites was succeeded by a despotic capriciousness, highly oppressive to the Christian inhabitants. Nor did any change for the better take place, when, at last, the number of petty tyrants by degrees was diminished. The three chieftains who, in the year 1059, had divided the island among themselves, the Alcalde Abdallah-ben-Menkut, who ruled Mazzara, Trapani, Marsala, Sciacca, and the neighboring towns; the Alcalde Ali-ben-Naamh, who reigned at Castrogiovanni, Girgenti and Castronuovo; and Ebn-al-Themanh, who commanded

on each other with diffidence and hatred, and were every moment ready to begin the contest. The division and mode of government reminded of the situation of Sicily in antiquity, when it was colonized by the Greeks, and divided among petty tyrants, who succeeded in establishing princely powers in the cities."

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Nearly at the time of Roger's first incursion into the island, Ebn-al-Themanh had ordered the veins to be opened on one of his wives, the sister of Ali-ben-Naamh, who had excited his anger. This cruelty occasioned a feud with Ali-ben-Naamh, who vanquished his brother-in-law in a bloody battle near Castrogiovanni. The defeated Emir fled to Calabria, where he met Roger, then residing in Reggio, and in a flowery speech he described to him the Saracens as a dastardly race, and with his hand placed on the Koran, he swore that all he said was according to truth." He succeeded in persuading Roger to undertake the war. Preparations were made, and in the following January, 1061, Roger, accompanied by the Emir, his brother Godfrey, and a hundred and sixty Norman knights, set sail for Sicily. Before Messina the Normans were met by part of the Saracen garrison, and a furious battle began. Roger, without shield or armor, charged the enemy at the head of his knights, and with prodigious force cleft the foremost Arab in two." The combat continued all night by the light of the torches in the Saracen camp. The Normans now retired to the coast in order to embark with the heads of cattle they had driven away, but a terrible storm arose and cut off all retreat. Crowds of Saracens, continually augmenting, then renewed the attack, and the danger of the Normans increased with every moment. In this emergency, Roger made a vow to erect a church to St. Anthony in Reggio, instead of that which had been destroyed during the siege. The storm suddenly abated, a favorable wind sprung up, and the Normans sailed singing across the strait. Although Aimé and Jeffrey Malaterra make Roger return victorious from Sicily, yet it is sufficiently clear from their statements, that the expedition of Ebn-alThemanh did not answer to the expectations of the Normans. Nor would Roger

so soon have attempted to repeat his attack on the island, if he had not received a new summons for that purpose from the Sicilian inhabitants. Three Christians, Ansoldo di Parti, Niccolò Camoli, and Giacomo di Pacciano, taking a walk outside of Messina, in spring, 1061, their eyes fell upon their native town, as it lay illuminated by the rays of the sun; they grieved that the beautiful city should beg the mercy of the infidels, and they conceived the first idea of calling in Roger, to which the other Christian inhabitants gave their assent. They then only waited for the festival of the Beiram," secretly to cross over to Calabria, where, in the castle of Melito, they met with Roger. He willingly entered upon their proposition.

When Robert Wiscard, who at that time had his hands free, was informed that the Normans had been invited by the inhabitants of Messina, he called the counts of Apulia to arms, and encouraged them to deliver the Catholic Christians, who were sighing under the yoke of the Saracens, and to avenge this outrage against the Lord. In March and April great armaments were made for the contest, which was now no longer to be carried on by insignificant forays, but was to be changed into a war for the deliverance of the whole island. In May, large troops of Normans, with crosses on their cloaks, hastened to Reggio, where Roger had assembled a fleet of flat-bottomed vessels." With two ships, Robert and Roger sailed over to Sicily, reconnoitred the coast of the island, and returned daringly through the midst of a large fleet of Arabian ships, which Ali-ben-Naamh had collected in the strait. Robert Wiscard then took advantage of a dark night, to send thirteen boats with his brother and three hundred Norman warriors over to the island, when Roger instantly after his landing assaulted Messina. In vain even the Arabic women and children armed and mounted the towers and walls, to throw spears and arrows down upon the Normans. The Christian inhabitants opened the gates, and soon bloodshed and plundering prevailed throughout all the houses in Messina, that had not previously been marked with the sign of the cross. The Saracens, wherever found, were slain; their wives and children were

| divided among the victors as slaves, and but few succeeded in making their escape to the neighboring woods. Jeffrey Malaterra relates, with many particulars, how a young Arab of one of the prominent families in the city, attempted to carry off with him his beautiful and delicate sister; how the young beauty fainting, fell to the ground, unable to continue the flight; and how the brother, in his despair, stabbed her to the heart in order to save her from

Norman captivity.""

When the Saracens, who were cruising off Reggio, discovered that they had been deceived, and that Messina was taken, they instantly set sail for Palermo, having now no other harbor where they could find a refuge against the autumnal storms. The victor immediately sent the keys of Messina to Robert Wiscard, who was thus enabled to meet him in the conquered city. Here the duke spent twelve days in reviewing the towers, walls, buildings and beautiful gardens of the city, and organizing the army, which, on the arrival of all the Norman knights, with their small bands of feudal retainers, did not exceed the number of two thousand horse and foot. A Norman garrison was then left in Messina, and the two brothers, occupying Rameta beyond the ridge, marched south to Mount Etna, where they encamped for some days. Following the banks of the river Jiaretta, (Symoethus,) which flows through the valley of Etna, they arrived at Centorbi, whose inhabitants bravely withstood all their assaults. At last they were obliged to relinquish the hope of conquering this town in its strong situation, and breaking up the camp, Robert marched south-west into the interior of the island, where all the inhabitants fled before the Normans, as Aimé says, "like the wax melting away before the fire." In many towns he did not find a living being. Yet expecting the attack of the Arab forces, Robert prudently fell back upon Palermo, which he found vacant and uninhabited. The town lay on the slope of Mount Etna, and finding the surrounding plain convenient for an equestrian combat with the Arabs, he remained there eight days, waiting in vain for the enemy. He then marched forward upon San Felipe, and after a short stay, arrived at the small river which, through the deep

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and broad valley, runs north of Castrogiovanni. Here the Normans at last met Ali-ben-Naamh at the head of fifteen thousand" Arabs, and here they triumphed in a battle which may be considered as the greatest and most important they gained in open field during their war in Sicily. The day after the action, they hastened to Calata-Chibotta, where they found excellent fountains. Here they reposed, and Robert here divided the booty which was partly gathered from the ten thousand Arab corpses left on the battle-field, and partly consisted in a number of Arabian steeds, of which ten at least fell to the share of every Norman. While the indefatigable Roger continued pressing on, scouring the country from Calata-Chibotta as far down as Girgenti, Robert returned to Messina, from which he had now been absent for three months. On the road Alcaldes came from all parts, and kneeling down, bowing their heads and crossing the hands on their breasts," they submitted their districts and towns to his sway, while others presented him with precious gifts, presents of gold and silver, mules splendidly caparisoned with gilt saddles and bridles, purple cloaks, richly embroidered and superb silk-stuffs." The Christian inhabitants of Val Demona likewise sent ambassadors and submitted to the Norman dominion. For their protection Robert Wiscard erected a castle, which, like his first fortress in Calabria, was named San Marco, and a garrison of Normans was placed there under the command of William of Malo.74 Winter was coming on, when the two brothers met in Messina. The army was disbanded, and all returned to Calabria with the exception of Ebn-alThemanh, who remained in Catania, and the Norman garrisons in Messina and the castle of San Marco. Robert Wiscard immediately returned to Apulia, but the indefatigable Roger being soon tired of inactivity, made still another visit to Sicily during the winter, 1061-62. Yet on his learning the departure of Yutta of Grentemesnil from Normandy, and her arrival in Italy, he returned to the continent, where, in spring, bride and bridegroom met each other in the valley of Šalinarum, and celebrated their nuptials at the castle of Mileto in Calabria."

IV. The Normans having turned their

powerful arms against the unbelieving Arabs, it became quite natural that the Italians should more and more unite with them, and gradually get accustomed to their foreign manners and language." This change had an immediate effect upon the war, which now began to be conducted on a larger scale, and gradually to deviate from that bold and chivalrous manner, so highly characteristic of the northern descent of the conquerors, by which, in the beginning, it distinguished itself.

It will, therefore, be sufficient for us here briefly to mention its conclusion. During its prosecution, Robert Wiscard fought especially against the Greeks on the Italian continent, and Roger against the Saracens in Sicily; yet both brothers participated in the honor of the reduction of Bari, the last possession of the Greeks in Italy. The investment of this city was carried on by regular works," and after a protracted siege, it surrendered on the 16th of April, 1071.7 The war with the Saracens in Sicily had, in the meantime, been continued since the beginning of the year 1071. In that year, Roger, with his young countess and a small band of Norman knights, was surrounded by the Saracens and the dissatisfied Greek inhabitants in Trainæ, a town on the western slope of Mount Etna, where he for a long time struggled with the greatest dangers and hardships." In the following year, 1072, he gained a brilliant victory on the banks of the river Cerami against the Arabs, "who dispersed," says the Chronicler, "like the dense clouds before the stormy blast, or like the flight of birds before the shooting hawks," and abandoned on the battle-field an immense booty. Four of the captured camels were sent to the pope, Alexander the Second, as a present."

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From this time the Normans rode triumphantly over Sicily in all directions, and forced the inhabitants of the plains to submission, while the flower of the Mahommedan population either emigrated to Africa or shut themselves up in the fortified places of the mountains. Yet not even here were they secure against the bold attacks" by day and night, in sunshine and during the thunder-storm," of the restless and daring invaders. From their strongholds, the Arabs sometimes attempted to make sallies into the valleys, but they suf