Weald, that is, the wild forest or chase. It continued for a lengthened period to be an immense forest, occupied only by herds of deer and hogs belonging to the king. It was gradually, however, distributed by royal grants among the surrounding religious houses and manors; the portion assigned to each being called a den, denberie, or wealdberie. At first, these grants were used only for the feeding of hogs (pannage for hogs), the soil being supposed to be unfit either for tillage or pasture; but in course of time they were by degrees cleared and brought into cultivation; the districts deriving, for the most part, their peculiar and distinctive denominations from the names of those by whom they were occupied and improved, as Tenterden, Halden, Malden, &c. In the Kentish part of the weald the custom of gavelkind, by occasioning the repeated division and subdivision of estates, has rendered these dens very small at present compared with their original magnitude. The soil of this extensive district is peculiarly well adapted to the growth of oak timber; and as every inclosure is surrounded with oak trees, and every wood and coppice is full of them, it still retains its ancient woody appearance. "When viewed from the adjoining hills, which command a prospect over the whole of it, the weald exhibits the most delightful scene that can be imagined. It appears to the eye an extensive level country (the few hills in it being so small and inferior to those whence it is viewed), covered with all the richness of both art and nature, the variety of small inclosures of corn and meadow, and the houses, seats, and villages promiscuously interspersed among the large and towering oaks, which grow over the whole face of it, have the most pleasing effect, and represent to us, even at this time, something, though a great improvement, of its original state, in the idea of an inhabited and well-cultivated forest." (Hasted's Kent, Svo ed. vol. i. pp. 293— 298.; Campbell's Political Survey, vol. ii. p. 272.)

The other level tracts that seem to deserve any particular notice are the Fens, Romney Marsh, the Marshes of Somersetshire, and Salisbury Plain. The Fens, as they are emphatically termed, lying around the great arm of the sea called the Wash, are situated principally in the counties of Cambridge and Lincoln, but partly also in those of Northampton, Norfolk, Suffolk, and Huntingdon. They form an immense tract of above 400,000 acres. It seems to be sufficiently established by the circumstances mentioned by Dugdale, in his History of Embanking, and by the remains of ancient roads, trees, &c., found under the surface, that most part of what is now called the Great Level of the Fens was, originally, comparatively firm, dry land. This appears the

See Dugdale's "History of Embanking and Draining," cap. 32.; see also extracts from Dugdale and other writers, in Elstobb's "History of the Bedford Level," pp. 3-8, &c.

more singular, as there can be no question that the present surface of a large portion of the Level is a good deal above what it anciently was.(Elstobb's Bedford Level, pp. 32-37, &c.) But this apparent anomaly admits of a pretty satisfactory explanation. It seems sufficiently ascertained that, previously to the invasion of the Romans, the sea at spring tides overflowed very extensive tracts of the low grounds contiguous to the Wash. The greater part of the water that thus overspread the country would be reconveyed to the sea at ebb tide, by the channels of the Ouse, Nene, Welland, and other rivers that run through the fens; and this great addition to the land water would suffice to scour and deepen their channels, and to give them a good outfall.-(Ibid. p. 44.) In consequence, the more inland parts of the fens at Thorney, Deeping, Donnington, Downham, &c., were comparatively well drained; and though their surface was lower than at present, it was dry and sound.

The Romans were the first who began to exclude the sea, and to confine the rivers by means of embankments. After this had been effected, the quantity of refluent water being materially diminished, the channels of the rivers, not being sufficiently scoured, gradually filled up; and the course of the land water being obstructed, it began to stagnate in the upper part of the fens. The evil was increased by the occasional bursting of the sea through its banks; there being hardly any outlet for the water that had entered by the breach.

An evil of this sort would not speedily manifest itself, but would become more and more perceptible as the rivers got encumbered with sand and mud. Henry of Huntingdon, who lived in the reign of King Stephen, describes the country round Thorney in the most glowing terms; and, allowing for a good deal of colouring, it is still sufficiently certain that its state must at that time have been widely different from what it afterwards became. So early as the reign of Edward I. the evil had attained to such a magnitude, that attempts at drainage upon a considerable scale were commenced. These attempts have been continued ever since. Previously to the Reformation, a large proportion of the fens belonged to rich religious houses; and the drainage seems to have been conducted, under their superintendence, with considerable success. But after the suppression of the monasteries, the estates belonging to them came into private hands; and, in the confusion of the times, the dikes and drains were allowed to fall into decay, and the fens got into an extremely bad state.* At length, in the reign of Elizabeth, their recovery began to be viewed in its true light, as a subject of great national importance; and measures

* Campbell's Political Survey, vol. ii. p. 274.

were taken in furtherance of that object, which, however, were defeated by the death of the Queen. Many plans were proposed and abandoned between the accession of James I. and 1634, when a charter of incorporation was granted by Charles I. to Francis Earl of Bedford (the proprietor of about 20,000 acres of land in the vicinity of Thorney and other places in the fens), and thirteen other adventurers, who jointly undertook to drain the Level, on condition of their being allowed 95,000 acres of land as a compensation. After the corporation had expended about 100,000l. on the undertaking, the contract with the Earl and his associates was set aside, at the instigation of government, on pretence that the works of the adventurers were insufficient to effect the drainage. The real object of this nefarious proceeding was to pave the way for the Crown interfering in what promised to be a profitable business; and no sooner had the corporation been defeated, than an offer by the King to drain the fens, on being allowed 152,000 acres, or 57,000 more than were to have been allowed to the adventurers, was accepted. But this fraudulent scheme was defeated by the disturbances that soon after broke out; and in 1649, William Earl of Bedford was restored, by the Convention Parliament, to all the rights of his father. The works, which had fallen to decay, were forthwith repaired; and, in pursuance of the plan of the famous Sir Cornelius Vermuyden, the New Bedford river was excavated, and the works prosecuted with so much sagacity and vigour, that in 1653 the Level was adjudged to be fully drained, and the 95,000 acres were awarded to the Earl and his associates. Most of the latter were nearly ruined by the enterprise; the expenses of the drainage having amounted to 400,000l. (Elstobb, p. 296.)

In 1668, a corporation was established (15 Chas. II. cap. 17.) for providing for the maintenance and repair of the works, for assessing the proprietors in the sums required to defray the necessary expenses, and other similar purposes. The corporation, under this act, consists of a governor, six bailiffs, twenty conservators, and commonalty. The officers are elected annually; the commonalty consists of all persons possessed of 100 acres within the Level; a conservator must have 200 acres ; and the bailiffs and governors 400 acres each. This body was authorised to levy a tax on the whole 95,000 acres ; but only 83,000 acres are vested in the corporation in trust for the Earl (now Duke) of Bedford and others, 12,000 acres having been assigned to the Crown, and 2,000 to the Earl of Portland. Since that period, various acts have been passed, explaining, amending, and altering the above. In 1697, the Bedford Level was divided into three districts - North, Middle, and South; having one surveyor for each of the former, and two for the latter; and, in 1753, the North Level was

separated from the rest. Still, however, the great outlines of the act of 1668 have been preserved; and it continues to form the basis of the legislation with respect to the fens.

Except within the district subject to the corporation of the Bedford Level, the drainages are mostly every where effected by commissioners appointed nearly in the same way as the road commissioners. All proprietors or occupiers of land within the Level are charged with a tax or scot of so much per acre on the land they hold. This tax is collected by a surveyor; and is expended either in clearing or repairing the existing drains, or in making new ones, as the commissioners may order.

The water in the rivers and great artificial cuts is generally above the level of the surrounding lands, being confined to its channel by numerous embankments. The water collected in the land drains and ditches is lifted into these main channels by means of pumps wrought mostly by windmills, but now, in a few instances, by steam-engines. Owing to the porousness of the soil, the water is always oozing, or soaking, as it is called, from the higher levels; though this has been in some degree obviated by puddling.

In 1795, an act was passed for improving the outfall of the river Ouse, and for making a cut across the marshes, from Eau Brink to Lynn. But it was not till 1818 that this important work was undertaken. It was completed in about two years; and has proved highly serviceable.

But notwithstanding the vast works that have been undertaken and completed, the drainage of the fens, though far advanced, is still, in many places, very imperfect. Much has been accomplished, but much remains to be done. It is, perhaps, impossible completely to drain the Great Level; but the vast importance of the object points out the propriety of leaving no means untried that afford any reasonable prospect of its accomplishment. This also will, we hope, be deemed a sufficient apology for the length of these details.*

Romney Marsh, in Kent, an extensive tract of level rich land, occupies its south-east angle. What is strictly included under this appellation comprises about 24,000 acres: but when it is described, as it generally is, in connection with the Welland Marsh, containing about 16,500 acres, which adjoins it on the south-west; Denge Marsh, containing about 3,000 acres, which unites with the latter on the

An immense number of Reports, &c. have been published on the Drainage of the Great Level. One by Mr. Smeaton was published in 1768. For further particulars the reader is referred to Elstobb's "History of the Bedford Level;" Vancouver's "Survey of Cambridge;" Gough's edition of Camden's Britannia, &c.

south-east; and Guildford Marsh, in Sussex, containing about 3,200 acres; its extent may be taken at about 46,700 acres.

The soil of this spacious level is not equally fine. In some parts, particularly near the sea, it is poor sandy gravel; but by far the largest portion consists of a soft, unctuous clay, mixed with a greater or less proportion of sea sand, and is uncommonly rich and fertile.

In summer, when the marsh is clothed with luxuriant verdure, and covered with numerous flocks of sheep and herds of cattle, its appearance from the adjacent heights is at once rich and beautiful. It differs from the fens in this, that it was not recovered, like the latter, but wrested from the sea. At what period the process began is not accurately known. It is probable, however, that considerable parts of the marsh were gained during the early part of the Saxon period of our history. Somner, in his discourse concerning Roman ports and forts in Kent, produces a charter of marsh land by Plegmund, archbishop of Canterbury, from the year 889 to 915; and this charter does not seem to have been one of the first. The clergy, indeed, were deeply interested in gaining these lands, being owners of most part of the property in their vicinity; and the practice of inning, as it is called, that is, of wresting land from the sea, is commonly supposed to have originated with them. The archbishops of Canterbury, in particular, appear to have sedulously applied themselves to this object, giving their names to such parts of the marsh as they respectively gained. Hence we have Becket's, Baldwin's, Boniface's, Peckham's, &c. innings. (Campbell's Survey, vol. i. p. 404.) The marsh is prevented from being overflowed at high water, by an immense embankment between Hythe and Romney, called Dymechurch Wall, from its contiguity to the village of that name. This wall forms a highway for carriages along its whole extent. dicular height from the marsh is, in most parts, from 12 to 18 or 20 feet. The slopes are steep, and pretty regular. Next the sea, it forms a shelving irregular beach, carried out to the distance of more than 100 yards. The width of the top of the wall is from 15 to nearly 30 feet. Its length is rather more than 3 miles. Arched sluices, that pass under the banks, each having two pair of floodgates, effect the drainage. At ebb tide the waters make their escape through the gates, which are so contrived that they prevent the sea from entering at high water.

Its perpen

There are very few trees or hedges in the marsh: the fences consist mostly of ditches and rails; great quantities of wood for the repair of the latter being every year brought from the Weald and other parts of Kent and Sussex. A good deal more land is now ploughed than formerly; but it seems very doubtful whether this