temperature of the climate, and the antiseptic nature of many of the plants of which they consist, have a more or less injurious tendency, both by lowering the temperature and diminishing the purity of the air. The prevalence of westerly and south-west winds, the consequent humidity of the air, the remarkably broken and indented state of the western and northern coasts, the number of loughs, or lakes, and considerable rivers, and the tempering influence of the Atlantic Ocean, combine to render the winters mild in respect of temperature, but stormy and rainy; to prevent the continuance of frost; to promote vegetation; to give the face of the country a verdant appearance; to increase fertility; and to produce a greater irregularity and uncertainty of the seasons and weather than in England.

With respect to the influence of the climate of Ireland upon the vegetable and animal kingdoms, little need be said, inasmuch as the existing state of both is manifestly owing more to circumstances foreign to the climate, than to the climate itself. All the productions of the soil usually cultivated in England may be raised in Ireland, although the greater irregularity of the seasons in the latter renders the produce more uncertain; while the greater humidity of the air is, as already stated, unfavourable to the ripening of corn, particularly of wheat. Much, indeed, of the corn of Ireland could not be preserved, unless it were kiln-dried. The remarkable deficiency of forest trees is, however, owing infinitely more to circumstances connected with the political state of the country, than to differences of climate: several forests, which existed when Boate wrote his account of Ireland, have since disappeared; not in consequence of any deterioration of the climate, but of the wasteful, abusive treatment to which they have been subjected. (See post.) The mildness and moisture of the climate is such, that the pasture lands, particularly those resting on a limestone bottom, are always more or less verdant. Even the mountains of Kerry, Cork, and Tipperary, are usually grazed throughout the year. In the southern counties the cattle are seldom, and in some places never, housed during winter. The eulogy of Giraldus Cambrensis, on the climate of Ireland, is more applicable at the present time than when he wrote: "Terra terrarum temperatissima, nec Cancri calor exæstuans compellit ad umbras, nec ad focos Capricorni rigor invitat, aëris amanitate temperieque tempora ferè cuncta tepescunt." - (Topog. Hib. cap. 25.)

The climate, as respects the human constitution, is, upon the whole, highly salubrious. With the slight exception already made, it can hardly be said to be materially less so than the climates of Scotland and England. The greater prevalence of fevers and dysentery in Ireland, although partly attributable to the humidity of the atmo

sphere, in connection with marsh exhalations, is mainly owing to other causes; more especially to very poor, and often unwholesome, diet, to famine, to imperfect clothing, to sleeping on the earthen floors of the cabins, to neglect of personal and domestic cleanliness, and to various circumstances which associate themselves with the oppression, ignorance, and bigotry to which the lowest classes are subjected, and with the imperfect civilisation to which they have as yet, in many places, attained.

The very remarkable differences in moral constitution, in temperament, and even in physical conformation, among the natives of the three kingdoms, and more especially between those of Ireland and Great Britain, cannot be explained by any appreciable differences of the climate or soil; they must, therefore, be referred, and are clearly, indeed, attributable, to other sources.

SECT. VIII. Civil Divisions.

Previously to the invasion of Ireland by the English in the reign of Henry II., it was divided, for ecclesiastical purposes, into the provinces of Leinster, Ulster, North and South Munster, and Connaught. But for a lengthened period after the invasion its principal divisions were the country within and the country without the pale ; that is, within and without the district on the east and south coasts, principally occupied and settled by the English. The limits of the pale varied at different periods. In 1211 it was divided into 12 counties; viz., Dublin, Meath, Uriell (now called Louth), Kildare, Catherlough, or Carlow, Kilkenny, and Wexford, comprising most part of the province of Leinster, with Waterford, Cork, Kerry, and Tipperary, in Munster. In the reign of Queen Mary, King's County and Queen's County were formed. And by statute of the 11th of Queen Elizabeth, Connaught and Ulster were divided into counties, as we now find them. Wicklow, which had previously been considered as belonging to the counties of Dublin and Carlow, was formed into a separate county early in the reign of James I. Since that epoch, Ulster has contained 9, Leinster 12, Connaught 5, and Munster 6 counties; making for the whole country a total of 32.

Baronies. These correspond pretty closely with hundreds in England. They appear to have been formed successively in consequence of the submission of the chiefs who ruled over them; the territory of each constituting a barony. This accounts for their extreme inequality in respect of size, and for the territory belonging to one being frequently intermixed with that of another; as is partiparticularly observable in the county of Cork. There are in all 252

baronies in Ireland, of which 54 are in Ulster, 97 in Leinster, 42 in Connaught, and 59 in Munster.

Parishes. The division into parishes is of much greater antiquity than that into baronies. Originally it was purely ecclesiastical, and was introduced among the civil divisions merely from motives of convenience. Unluckily, however, the civil and ecclesiastical divisions do not always correspond, parishes frequently extending not only into different baronies, but into different counties; and townlands are sometimes attached to one parish for the assessment of the county taxes, while, with respect to tithes and other ecclesiastical contributions, they are considered as forming part of another. This sort of confusion produced considerable inconvenience in the taking of the census. Dr. Beaufort differs from Mr. Griffith with respect to the number of parishes in Ireland; the former stating that they amount to 2,436, and the latter to 2,450.

Townlands. This is the smallest subdivision of the country. The name, however, is not universal throughout Ireland; some counties having adopted in its stead the term Ploughland, which is supposed to contain 120 acres; but as the quantity has been taken by estimate, and not by measurement, their extent varies considerably even in the same county. Townlands, in many instances, have been subdivided. (For further remarks on the subdivisons of Ireland, see the Preliminary Remarks prefixed to the Census of 1821.)

SECT. IX. Statistical Notices of the different Irish Counties.

LEINSTER.

1. Wexford, a maritime county, being the most southerly of Leinster, is bounded on the south and east by St. George's Channel; on the north by Wicklow; and on the west by Carlow, Kilkenny, and Waterford Harbour. It contains 564,479 acres, of which 18,500 are unimproved mountain and bog. Surface pleasantly diversified; climate mild. Soils either light or stiff clays. Property in pretty considerable estates: farms of various sizes, but there is less extreme subdivision of land in this than in most other Irish counties. Dairies numerous, but badly managed: some districts have been long noted for their great crops of barley. Average rent of land, 14s. per statute acre; but, in general, it is too high, and the competition for small patches is carried beyond all reasonable limits. The barony of Forth, occupying the south-western angle of Wexford, differs widely from the rest of the county, and, indeed, from every other district of Ireland. It was settled, at a distant period, by a colony from South Wales, and, till very recently, the Welsh language was spoken by every one, and is still understood by the older inhabitants. The people are industrious, provident, peaceable, and cleanly. The farms are small, running from 10 up to 50 or 60 acres, but those from 30 to 40 are most common. Mr. Inglis says, that the land is clean and

: * Unless where the contrary is expressed, all our references are made to the statute or Imperial acre.

well cultivated; that the crops of wheat and beans, both of which are extensively grown, are excellent; and that the improved Scotch plough with 2 horses is in universal use. The farm-houses are substantial, and the cottages clean and comfortable, forming, in this respect, a striking contrast with those in most other parts of the county. Persons of different religious creeds live in this barony harmoniously together. Land here, as in the rest of the county, very high-rented. — (Ireland in 1834, vol. i. p. 49.) Wexford has no minerals of any importance. The woollen manufacture has been established in the town. Principal rivers, Slaney and Barrow. Wexford contains 8 baronies and 142 parishes; and returns 4 members to parliament, being 2, for the county, and 1 each for the boroughs of Wexford and New Ross. Principal towns and population in 1831:- Wexford, 10,673; New Ross, 5,011; Enniscorthy, 5,955; Gorey, 3,044. Population of county, in 1831, 182,713.

2. Kilkenny, an inland county, is bounded on the east by Wexford and Carlow; on the north by Queen's County; on the west by Tipperary and Waterford; and on the south by the latter. It contains 513,686 acres, of which 96,569 are unimproved mountain and bog. Surface diversified. Soil of various qualities; in a few places it is moorish; but for the most part it is light and dry, resting on a limestone bottom, some valleys being extremely fertile. Climate mild. Tillage in a backward state; but it has been materially improved during the last 20 years, both as respects the rotation of crops, the implements employed, the stock kept by the farmer, &c. According to the Survey of Kilkenny by Mr. Tighe, published in 1802 (p. 253.), of 66,361 Irish acres in cultivation, 26,000 were in wheat, 20,600 in potatoes, 10,000 in oats, and 8,000 in barley. In the interval, however, tillage has been much extended, and the proportion of wheat materially increased. Dairy husbandry extensively practised; but the details ill understood. Property in large estates. Farms of various sizes, but generally small. Partnership tenures not uncommon (see Galway). Farm-houses and other accommodations, for the most part very inferior. Average rent of land, 17s. an acre, being among the highest rented counties in Ireland. Mr.Inglis says that all classes were unanimously of opinion, that the condition of the labourers and small farmers had visibly deteriorated during the last 12 or 15 years. And, whether this be really so or not, the details which he gives show that at present it is exceedingly bad. Manufactures of carpets and some other woollen articles have been attempted at Kilkenny on a pretty large scale; but the experiment has not proved successful. — (Ireland in 1834, vol. i. p. 91.) Coal mines have been long wrought at Castle-comer, in the northern part of the county; but, owing to the bad quality of the coal and expense of working, it is not much used. Sandstone, manganese, with iron and lead ores, have been found in various places. Principal rivers, Suir, Nore, and Barrow, which last divides it from Carlow and Wexford. Kilkenny contains 9 baronies, and 127 parishes; and returns 3 members to parliament, being 2 for the county, and 1 for the borough of Kilkenny. The principal town, Kilkenny, had, in 1831, a population of 23,741. Population of county in ditto, 169,949.

3. Carlow, or Catherlough, a small inland county, bounded on the south and east by Wexford and Wicklow; on the north by the latter and Kildare; and on the west by Queen's County and Kilkenny. It contains 219,863 acres, of which 23,030 are unimproved mountain and bog. The southern boundary is mountainous; but the rest of the surface is for the most part gently undulating. The soil in the uplands is a light gravel, and in the lowlands a fertile loam. Estates middle-sized. Mr. Wakefield observes of this county, that "It has very little of that minute division of land so injurious to other parts of Ireland. It has neither a temporal nor a spiritual peer resident within it; and, though destitute of manufactures, it is tenanted by more wealthy people

than almost any other county in the island. There are extensive dairies in this county, and its butter, of which large quantities are exported to England, &c., is the best of any in Ireland. The inhabitants are said to prefer it when rancid." — (Vol. I. p. 248.) Average rent of land, 15s. per acre. Principal rivers, Barrow and Slaney; the former partly intersects the county, and partly divides it from Queen's County and Kilkenny. Carlow is divided into 5 baronies, and 50 parishes; and returns 3 members to parliament, being 2 for the county, and 1 for the borough of Carlow. The principal town, Carlow, had, in 1831, a population of 9,114. Population of county in ditto, 81,988.

4. Wicklow, a maritime county, is bounded on the east by St. George's Channel; on the north by the county of Dublin; on the west by Kildare and Carlow; and on the south by Wexford. It contains 494,704 acres, of which 94,000 are unimproved mountain and bog. This is a very mountainous county. In some places it is well wooded and extremely picturesque and beautiful. Estates mostly large; the most extensive, valuable, and best cultivated belongs to Earl Fitzwilliam. Farms of various sizes; many small. Average rent of land 12s. an acre. Speaking generally, rents are much too high; the labouring population not half employed; and their condition, and that of the small farmers, as bad as possible. But little wheat is raised, and that principally in the eastern parts of the county. Wicklow has to boast considerable mineral treasures. We have already noticed the fact of a quantity of gold having been found in stream works in this county (antè, p. 362.). These, however, have been wholly abandoned, the produce of metal being insufficient to repay the expenses. About 400 persons are at present employed in copper mines at Cronebane and Ballymurtagh; and last year (1834) 8,434 tons of copper and lead ore were exported. Bismuth, manganese, zinc, &c., have also been found, but in inconsiderable quantities. Marl is very abundant in parts of the county, and is said to have wonderfully increased the fertility of some districts. - (Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. vi. p. 163, &c.) Principal rivers, Slaney, Fustra, and Ovoca. Wicklow contains 6 baronies, and 58 parishes; and returns 2 members to parliament, both for the county The county town, Wicklow, had, in 1831, a population of 2,472; and Arklow, of 4,383. Population of county, in ditto, 121,557.

5. Dublin, the metropolitan county of Ireland, is bounded on the east by St. George's Channel; on the south by Wicklow; and on the north and west by Meath and Kildare. It contains 248,631 acres, of which the unoccupied hill and bog only amount to 10,812. Soil, for the most part, shallow and naturally poor; substratum generally a cold retentive clay. Property much divided. Farms near the city very small; but, at a distance, larger. Agriculture backward, and farm buildings insufficient. Average rent of the county, exclusive of that part called the county of the city of Dublin, and of country houses, 188. an acre, being as high an average rent as is paid by any county in Ireland. Principal river, the Liffey, on which there is a considerable salmon fishery. Neither minerals nor manufactures important. Dublin, the Eblana of Ptolemy, and the metropolis of Ireland, is situated near the bay of the same name, contiguous to the mouth of the Liffey. It labours under the disadvantage of having a shallow bad harbour; but this inconvenience is now to a considerable extent obviated by the artificial harbour formed at Kingstown, and united to Dublin by a railroad. (See antè, p. 349.) Dublin is a large, and, speaking generally, a well-built city. Some of its streets and squares are magnificent; and it has to boast of some of the finest public buildings in Europe; not a few of which have, indeed, been constructed on a ridiculously extravagant scale. There are, however, some very inferior quarters; and a considerable part of the population is in extremely depressed circumstances. Dublin is the seat of the only Irish university. It was supposed by many that Dublin would be seriously injured by the Union, and the consequent removal of the Irish parliament; but this anticipation