to the east, in a slightly waving line, from Landguard Fort opposite Harwich, to Great Yarmouth. The first promontory we come to is Orfordness, a low beach running out into the sea. The town of Orford, formerly a sea-port, is now at some distance inland; but from Orfordness to Lowestoffe the sea has committed great ravages on the Suffolk coast. Dunwich, now an inconsiderable place, with not more than 200 inhabitants, was anciently an important sea-port, having an extensive trade, and a large population; but its port and its ancient site have been totally destroyed. The encroachment of the sea began previously to the Conquest. In the reign of Edward III. an inundation swallowed up more than 400 substantial houses. The last great irruption of the sea was in 1740; but it has continued progressively to make encroachments, and at present there remain only the ruins of one of its many churches. The ravages of the sea at Aldborough have not been much less destructive. Latterly, however, they have been checked by the formation of a sand-bank a little off shore. (Campbell's Survey, vol. i. p. 277.; Lyell's Geology, 3d ed. vol. i. p. 403.)

The sea opposite to Southwold, between Covehithe on the north, and Thorpeness on the south, is called Sole Bay. It was a frequent station of the English fleet during the Dutch wars in the reign of Charles II.; and here, in 1672, was fought the well-contested action between the English and French fleets, under the Duke of York and Count D'Estrées, and the Dutch fleet under De Ruyter.

At Lowestoffe and Yarmouth the land has gained on the sea. The change that has taken place in the vicinity of the latter has been most extraordinary. In the time of the Saxons a spacious estuary extended as far as Norwich; which city is represented, even in the 13th and 14th centuries, as situated on "an arm of the sea." The sands whereon Yarmouth is built became firm and habitable ground in the early part of the 11th century; from which time a line of dunes has gradually increased in height and breadth, stretching across the whole entrance of the ancient estuary, and obstructing the ingress of the tides so completely, that they are only admitted by the narrow passage which the river keeps open, and which has gradually shifted several miles to the south. Ordinary tides at the river's mouth only rise at present 3 or 4 feet, and springs 8 or 9 feet.

"By the exclusion of the sea thousands of acres in the interior have become cultivated land; and, exclusive of smaller pools, upwards of sixty freshwater lakes have been formed, varying in depth from 15 to 30 feet, and in extent from 100 to 1,200 acres. The Yare and other rivers frequently communicate with these lakes; and thus they are liable to be filled up gradually with lacustrine and fluviatile

deposits, and to be converted into land covered with forests."—(Lyell's Geology, 3d ed. vol. i. p. 398.)

From Yarmouth the Norfolk coast stretches north to Wintertoness, then north-west to Cromer, from the latter nearly west to Gore Point and Hunstanton, and thence nearly south to King's Lynn. It is for the most part fenced by sand-banks, that usually lie parallel to the shore; of these the most celebrated lie off Yarmouth, forming the outward barrier of the Roads.

The coast of Norfolk consists principally of cliffs, partly consisting of chalk, and partly of alternate strata of clay, gravel, loam, and sand. These are gradually undermined by the sea, which is every where making inroads on the land. The site of the ancient Cromer is now a part of the German Ocean; and the sea still threatens to dislodge the inhabitants from the more inland situation to which they have retreated. In the winter of 1825, some cliffs, nearly 250 feet high, contiguous to Cromer lighthouse, were precipitated into the sea, their fragments covering 12 acres ! The ancient villages of Shepden, Wimpwill, and Eccles have been engulfed; and in the harbour of Sheringham there is now water sufficient to float a frigate, where, half a century ago, there stood a cliff 50 feet high, with houses upon it! -(Lyell's Geology, vol. i. p. 396.)

At Holkham, Wells, and other places of the Norfolk coast, the shores are low, terminating in little hillocks of sand. The latter being held together by the arundo arenaria, or brent, oppose an effectual barrier to the encroachments of the sea. Hunstanton Cliff, at the entrance to the Wash, is naturally a prominent object, and is rendered still more conspicuous from its being crowned with a lighthouse: it is 80 feet high, and consists of chalk and hard red sandstone, resting on a base of iron-coloured puddingstone. (Introd. to Pennant's Arctic Zoology, p. 8.)

Lincolnshire is separated from Norfolk by the Wash, a great arm of the sea, extending south-west from Hunstanton Cliff round by King's Lynn, the Nene Outfall, and Fossdyke, to Gibraltar Point, near Waynfleet. It is encircled on all sides, except where it opens to the ocean, by low, marshy land, forming part of the Great Level of the fens. It is mostly filled up with immense sand-banks, the summits of which are dry at low water. The channels by which it is navigated are intricate, and require the aid of experienced pilots. An immense extent of land has been gained from the sea round its banks; and the process of "silting up" is continually going forward.

From Gibraltar Point the coast of Lincolnshire sweeps round in a continuous, unindented line, without ports, to the Humber. It is so low as to be visible from the sea only at a small distance; so that

churches, and not hills, are its distinguishing landmarks. This coast has been the theatre of great changes. Waynfleet, once a noted town, is at present an inconsiderable creek. Skegness, once a large walled town, with a good harbour, is now an inconsiderable place, a mile from the sea. The port of Grimsby, which in the reign of Edward III. furnished 11 ships for the siege of Calais, was recently almost choked up, and is now entirely artificial. In other parts, however, the sea has gained on the land; and the remains of a forest are said to be still visible under the waves.

Crossing the estuary of the Humber (see section on Rivers), we meet with the Spurn Head, forming the south-eastern limit of the Yorkshire coast. This is a long, low, narrow, hooked promontory: its extremity, on which two lighthouses are erected, being a beach mixed with sand-hills thrown up by the sea.

From this point the coast, which bends north-west to Hornsea, is composed principally of lofty cliffs of brown clay, perpetually preyed on by the sea; which, Mr. Pennant states, "devours whole acres at a time." A street in the village of Hornsea has been swallowed up; and of Hyde, a neighbouring village, the tradition only is left. (Arctic Zoology, Introd. p. 13.)

From Hornsea the coast inclines first gently to the west, and then round by the east, till it terminates in Flamborough Head. It is mostly low. Within the elbow, on the south side of the Head, is Bridlington Bay. On the north and west, it is protected by the Head and the adjacent coast, while the anchorage in-shore is defended from the easterly and southerly gales by the sand-bank called the Smithie. The holding-ground between the sand and the shore is good, and there are from 5 to 7 fathoms water. The Smithie is the only sandbank on the coast, from Spurn Head to Flamborough Head.

This last-mentioned promontory is at once the most striking and the most celebrated on the east coast of England. Its high, white, perpendicular limestone cliffs advance a considerable way into the ocean, and render it a most conspicuous object. Many of the rocks of which it is composed are insulated, of a pyramidal form, and soar to a great height. Most of them have solid bases; but others are pierced through and arched. On the north side are vast caverns, leading into the body of the Head, the retreat of immense numbers of sea-fowl and wild pigeons. A lighthouse, having the lantern elevated 214 feet above the level of the sea, and which is distinguishable in fair weather at a great distance, was erected on this promontory in 1806.

This Head is further remarkable from its being the commencement of the hard or rocky coasts of the east side of Great Britain, which

continue, as Mr. Pennant has remarked, with the intervention of a few sandy bays and low tracts, to its northern extremity.

North-west from Flamborough Head, distant about 16 miles, a round rocky promontory projects into the sea, by which it is surrounded on all sides except on the west. On the summit of this promontory is built the castle, and on its side stands the town of Scarborough. The latter has a pier harbour, vessels lying aground at low water. The shore is here remarkably bold; the height and appearance of the cliffs resemble those near Dover. Between Scarborough and Whitby, lies Robin Hood's Bay; having deep water, but exposed to the easterly gales. The coast thence to Whitby is rocky and dangerous. Whitby is situated at the mouth of the Esk. It has a fine pier; but its harbour, though justly considered the best in this part of the country, ebbs almost dry. There is a lighthouse on the pier.

From Whitby to the estuary of the Tees, the boundary between Yorkshire and Durham, the coast bends west-north-west. It is bold and rude, and destitute of any tolerable harbour; but it is indented with many bays, and varied with little fishing villages, built on the projecting ledges of the cliffs.

Hartlepool, in Durham, marks the northern extremity of the mouth of the Tees. It is seated on a promontory, almost surrounded by the sea. The harbour is small, but has recently been much improved by the erection of a pier, floodgates, &c., affording secure shelter for the smaller class of vessels. Hence, for some distance, the coast is flat; but, as it approaches Sunderland, it becomes rocky, and it is broken into deep caverns. Sunderland stands on the south side of the river Wear, and so near the ocean, as at high tide to appear a sort of peninsula. This port began first to rise into eminence, by the exportation of coal, about 1620. Latterly, it has been very much improved; two piers, and a lighthouse 90 feet high, having been constructed. At springs, there is from 15 to 17 feet water over the bar, and at neaps, from 10 to 12 feet. The channel is close in to the north pier head. Beyond Sunderland, the coast is bleak and dreary, to the point where the opposite towns of North and South Shields mark the embouchure of the Tyne. Within the river, and near the town of North Shields, are two lighthouses, which lead over the bar. The bold ruin of Tynemouth Castle is the first object that presents itself on the Northumberland coast. About 12 miles north from this is Newbiggin Point; between which and Tynemouth are the small harbours of Hartley, Blythe, and Seaton-Delaval, all of them dry at low water. From this point the coast presents nothing remarkable, except a small island at the mouth of the

Coquet, till we reach Bamborough Castle, situated on a promontory, once a place of great strength. Nearly opposite to it lies the group of rocky islets, called the Farn Isles, on the largest of which are two lighthouses. Holy Island lies about 4 or 5 miles north of Bamborough Castle. The coast of Northumberland, from the mouth of the Tyne to Bamborough Castle, is mostly low cliffs. From Bamborough to the mouth of the Tweed a sandy shore extends.

We have now briefly to notice the western coast of England, beginning with that of Cumberland. The coast of this county, and of the detached part of Lancashire called Furness, forms almost a semicircle, beginning at the mouth of the Eden, and terminating at the Isle of Walney. Toward the Solway Frith, it is marshy, indenting the country afterwards with the Bay of Kilbride. Workington, near the mouth of the Derwent, is the first place of consequence that presents itself. It has about 14 feet water at springs, and 8 at neaps. A little to the south of this is Whitehaven, situated on a small bay, surrounded by naked hills. It is supposed to have received its name from the white cliffs which lie on one side of its port; but its entire consequence is derived from its coal mines, excavated to a great extent under the sea. The harbour is divided into several basins, having from 16 to 18 feet water at springs, and from 9 to 10 at neaps. About 3 miles west-south-west from it is the

lofty promontory of St. Bees' Head, surmounted by a lighthouse, and

noted for the resort of sea-fowl.

The coast of Lancaster is very much indented by the Irish Sea. Dr. Campbell, in describing it, divides it into three peninsulas. Of these the first is comprehended between the river Duddon, which separates Lancashire from Cumberland, and the Kent, which separates it from Westmoreland. The second lies between the Kent and the Ribble, and the third between the Ribble and the Mersey, the boundary between Lancashire and Cheshire. The first of these, called Furness Fells, already adverted to, presents a line of coast of nearly 30 miles. The long and narrow Isle of Walney forms a vast natural breakwater, that protects this part of the Lancashire coast from the waves of the Irish Sea. Within the south end of Walney Island, on which there is a lighthouse, is the harbour or roadstead of Pile-a-foudre, protected on the east by the islands of Foula and Ro, to the westward of which vessels may ride in from 5 to 7 fathoms. This is a place of considerable importance, as respects the commerce of Liverpool, being the only safe resort for vessels in this quarter during strong westerly gales. - (Norie's Sailing Directions for St. George's Channel, &c. p. 47.) Ulverston, the port of the Furness district, is situated on the west side of a shallow arm of the sea,