AIR-VESSELS, these spiral ducts in the leaves, &c. of plants which supply them with air. AITONIA, in botany, a genus of the class and order monadelphia octandria. The only known species is a shrub that grows at the Cape of Good Hope; but it is reared in England in green-houses. It was named after Mr. Aiton, the king's gardener at Kew. AJUGA,Bugle, a genus of the gymnosper mia order, and didynamia class, of plants, and of the natural order, verticillata or labiatæ. There are six species: 1. Ajuga Genevensis, a native of Switzerland and the southern parts of Europe. 2. Ajuga orientalis, a native of the east. 3. Ajuga pyramidalis, or mountain bugle, having a pyramidal spike and blue flowers, a native of England. 4. Ajuga reptans, the common or pasture bugle with creeping suckers, and blue, red, or white blossoms. It grows in our island. The roots are astringent. 5. Ajuga Alpina, Alpine, or mountain bugle, a native of the Alps and of the mountainous parts of Britain. 6. Ajuga decumbens, Japonese bugle. AIZOON, in botany, a genus of the pentagynia order and icosandria class, and of the natural order succulentæ. There are ten species, natives of warm climates, but none of them remarkable. ALA, in botany, the hollow turning between the stalk or b.anch of a plant and the leaf. It is also a term applied to the parts of leaves called lobes. ALABASTER, a kind of stone which differs from marble in being combined with sulphuric acid. Specific gravity 1.87. Texture granular, with shining particles. The stone is in some degree_transparent. It is produced in Germany, France, Italy, Greece and England. There are three species: 1. The snow-white shining alabaster, or lygdinum of the antients. 2. The variegated, yellow and reddish alabaster. 2. The yellowish or phengites of Pliny, which is found in Derbyshire. ALE, an anatomical term applied to the cartilages of the nostril, the lobes of the liver, and to the armpits. In botany, ala are the petals of the leaves of papillinaceous flowers, between the vexillum and carcinna; as in beans and peas. ALARES, in Roman military antiquities, a kind of militia; but soine think they were the cavalry, stationed as the two wings or ale of the army. trivialis, whose tail is partly brown and partly white; it is a native of Sweden. 6. The cristata, which is a native of Furope and sings like the skylark. 7. The spinoletta, which is a native of Italy. 8. The alpestris, a native of North America. 9. The magna, common in Africa and America. 10. The New Zealand lark which inhabits Charlotte Sound, where it is named kogoo aroure. ALB, in the church of Rome, a white vestment, or surplice, worn by the priest. ALBARIUM Opus, in antient architec ture, the covering of the roofs with white plaster made of lime. ALBATROSS. See Diomedea. ALBE, a German coin valued at a French sol and seven deniers. ALBERTUS, a German gold coin worth about 3s. 4d. ALBINOS, the name given by the Portuguese to the white Moors whom the negroes despise as monsters. At a distance they appear like Europeans, but on approaching them their complexion resembles that of persons afflicted with the leprosy. A curious account of two albinos is in Saussure's journey in the Alps. ALBUCA, in botany, a genus of plants of the hexandria monogynia class and order. There are eight species, ali very tender, brought from the Cape of Good Hope. ALBUGO, or LEUCOMA, a disorder arising from an opaque spot on the transparent part of the eye. ALBULA, in natural history, are mineral waters of an aluminous quality. ALBUM,in antiquity, a white table or register in which the names of magistrates, public transactions, &c. were entered. ALBUMEN, a term applied by the che mists to that substance in eggs of fowls, commonly called the white. Albumen dissolves in water, and the solution gives a green colour to vegetable blues owing to the sod contained in it. When heated to the temperature of 134 it coagulates into a white solid mass, a property which distinguishes it from other bodies; but in this state it is no longer soluble in water. Heat, acids, and alcohol are the agents to coagulate albumen, the properties of which are different in its two states. Uncoagu lated albumen is a glary liquid, with little taste and no smell. It becomes a transparent substance when dried, and is used as a varnish by bookbinders. If not dried it soon putrefies. Coagulated albumen is | an opaque substance of a pearl white, tough, and of a sweetish taste. By drying it in the temperature of 2129 it becomes of a brittle yellow colour, and transparent like horn. Albumen is very useful for cla ALAUDA, the lark, in ornithology, a genus of birds of the order of passeres, whose characters are these: the beak is cylindrical, subulated, straight, and the two mandibles of the same size; the tongue bifid, and the hinder claw straight and longer than the toe. There are thirty-rifying fluids. From the effects of nitric three species, besides several varieties. The principal are, 1. The arvensis, or skylark this and the woodlark are the only ones that sing when flving 2. The pratensis, or titlark, which frequents meadows: it has a fine note. 3. The arborea, or woodlark, is distinguished by a white fillet about the head. It is less than the skylark, the colours are paler, and the voice less varied, but sweet. 4. The campestris has half of the chief feathers of the wings brown, except two which are white, and the throat and breast yellowish. 5. The acid on albumen it appears to consist of carbon, hydrogen, azote, and oxygen in unknown proportions. Albumen forms the membranous parts of several shells, sponges, &c. The white of a fresh egg applied in burns prevents them from rising in blisters; it also abates recent inflammation of the eyes, and preserves the face from freckles. A substance exactly the sae as animal albumen is found in the roots of various vegetables; also in wheat, and the farinaceous seeds; likewise in green and succulent plants. ALBURNUM, the white substance between the inner bark and wood of trees It is preyed upon by insects, which lodge in its substance. ALCA, or AUK, a genus of birds of the order of anseres The beak is without teeth, short, convex, compressed, and often has transverse furrows. The inferior man tible is gibbous; and the feet have usually three tues. The species are twelve, of which the principal are: 1. The impennis, northern penguin or great auk, having a compressed till and an oval spot on each side of the eyes. 2. The alca, little auk, or black and white diver, with a conical bill, a white streak on the belly and wings, and black feet. 3. The arctica, or puffin, with a compressed bill and four furrows; the orbit of the eyes and temples are white; The legs are small, and it cannot stand except erect. The torda, or razor-bill, with four furrows on the bill, and a white line on each side from the bill to the eyes. 5. The pica or black-billed auk, the cheeks, chin, and throat are white; in other respects it agrees with the former species 6. The cirrbata or tufted auk, resembling the puffin, but larger. 7. The psittacula or parroquet auk is about the size of the little auk. It is found in Kamtschatka, and on the western shores of America. ALCAICS, a term for several kinds of poetry, from Alcaus the inventor The first consists of a spondee or iambic, an iambic, accesura, and two dactyles. The second of two factyles and two trochees: these two kinds are ca led dactylic alcaics, besides which there is one siled simply the alchic, consisting of an epitrite, two choriambuses, and a bacchius. ALCAID or ALCALDE, among the Moors and Spaniards, a magistrate who has the regulation of the police. ALCANNA, a cosmetic powder male from the leaves of the Egyptian privet. An oil extracted from the berries of alcanna is used in medicine. ALCAVALA, a tax in Spain of six per cent. upon the sale of property. back and tail of a bright azure; the un der side of the body orange, and a band of the same colour from the bill to the eyes. It feeds on fish. 3. Alcedo paradisa, or paradise jacamar, is of the same size as the preceding, the throat, front of the neck, and under wing coverts are white; the rest of the body a dull green, slightly shaded with black, violet and cop per. It is a native of Surinam. 4. Alcedo rudis. or gyptian kingfisher, is about the size of the Royston crow. The bill is black, the head, shoulders, and back, brown; the throat and belly dusky white; the upper tail-coverts quite white, the tail ash-celoured. the legs of a pale green, and the claws black. it is a native of Egypt, and feeds on frogs, insects and small fish. 5. Alcedo Cayenensis, is about the size of a starling, the back is of a blue colour; the under parts white; and the legs red. It is a native of Cayenne and Guiana. 6. Alcedo torquata, or cinereous kingfisher, is about the size of a magpie; its colours are a bluish ash, chesnut, white, black, and yellow. It is a native of the West Indies. ALCHEMILLA, or Ladies Mantle, in bo tany, a genus of the monogynia order and tetrandria class of plants, and of the natural order of senticose. Character: cal. eight-cleft; cor. none; seed one. Of the species which are four, the chief are: 1. the vulgaris or common ladies mantle, with leaves like a fan, and blossoms of a foil ladies mantle. It is a native of the reilowish green. 2. The alpina or cinque mountainous parts of Furope. 3. Alchemilla minor or least ladies mantle. it is a native of the northern regions. ALCHEMY, an explosed branch of chemistry which had for its objects the transmutation of metals into gold, an universal panacea, & c. in the search for which, however, many of the adepts made several valuable discoveries ALCHORNEA. in botany, a gen is of the dioccia monodelphia class and o.der. Characters are male, calyx three, five leaved; Female, calyx one-leaved, five-toothed, cor. none; style two-parted; caps berried, de corous. cor. none. ALCEA, the holly-hock, in botany, a genus of the order polyandria, and the mona ielphia class; and of the natural order column feræ. Gmelin enumerates five species, the alcea ficifolia, rosea, sinensis, ALCOHOL, in chemistry, a term acaulis, and Coromandeliana.. The holly by modern chemists applied to the pureused for any highly rectified spirits; but hock is propagated by seeds, which shouldly spirituous part of liquors that have be sown in the middle of Aprilina bed of light earth. ALCEDO, or Kingfisher, a genus of birds of the order of put, having a long, straight, thick triangular bill. There are many secies, most of which frequent rivers, and are very quick in catching fish which they devour bones and all. The wings of most of the alcedo tribe are short, yet they fly with strength. Blue is the principal colour. The most remarkable species are 1. Alcedo gulbula, or green jacamar, is about the size of a lark. The bill is square and black, and sharp at the point; the plumage a bright green, glossed with copper and gold. This species is found in Guina and Brazil and feeds on insects. 2 Alcedo ispidu, of common kingfisher, is about the size of a swallow; the bill long, and the shape inelegant. The top of the head and the coverts of the wings are of adre green spotted with light blue: the gone through the vinous fermentation. the combustion, consisted of 2284 carbon 6.03 hydrogen 47.83 water 76.7 That alcohol contains oxygen has been recently proved, for when equal parts of alcohol and sulphuric acid are mixed, the latter is not changed, but the alcohol is converted into water and æther, which it could not be unless it contained oxygen. Alcohol mixes with water in every poportion and by the folowing table the proportion of real alcohol and water in mixtures may be ascertained. If the alcohol at 0 800 is pure, then alcohol of 0.813 is composed of 100 alcohol +2 water. 0.818 100+4 0.825 100+7.53, or 93+7. Alcohol readily dissolves the fixed alkalies and forms with them a red acrid solution, from which alone the alkalies can be obtained in a pure state. Alcohol dissolves many saline bodies, as sulphat of soda, sulphat of magnesia, nitrat of potash, nitrat of soda, muriat of ammonia, &c. &c. The known affinities of alcohol are æther, volatile oil, and alkaline suiphurets ALCOHOL, is the name of a fine pow der of lead ore, used by the ladies in Barbary for tinging their hair and eye-lids. ALCOR, in astronomy, a small star in the tail of ursa major. ALCORAN. See Koran. ALCYONIUM, a genus of zoophytes. The root is fixed and coriaceous, with a cellular epidermis, penetrated with stellated pores, and shooting out tentaculated oviparous hydræ. There are twenty-eight species. ALDEBARAN, the Bull's eye, in astronomy, a fixed star of the first magnitude, forming the eye of the constellation Tau rus. ALDER. See Betula. ALDERMAN, a magistrate, subordinate to the mayor of a corporation. In London there are twenty-six aldermen, each having the charge of one of the city wards: which office is for life. On a vacancy, a wardmote is held within three days, by which another is elected and returned to the court of aldermen. All the aldermen are justices of the peace; and the lord mayor is chosen from their body. In the times of the Saxons, alderman was a title of nobility. ALDROVANDA, in botany, a genus of plants of the pentandria class and pentagynia order, of which there is only one species. The calyx has five parts; petals five; and capsule five blunt angles, with ten seeds. It is a native of Italy and the Indies. ALE, a fermented liquor, obtained from an infusion of inalt, and differing from beer in having a less proportion of hops. It was the ordinary liquor of the aborigines of this island who called it curmi, or strong water. There are two kinds of ale brewed in England, the pale and the brown: the former is made from malt slightly dried, and is more viscad than the latter which is brewed from high-dried malt. If ale becomes flat, or tartish, it should be drawn off into a jug in which 28 many drams of powdered chalk are pat as there are pints of liquor; this produces a new fermentation which gives the ale its former taste. Ale and beer were first taxed by the 2 Car. II. ALE-GILL, is that in which the dried leaves of gill or ground ivy are infused. ALE-CONNER, an officer whose duty it is to inspect the measures in public houses. ALE-HOUSES must be licensed by jus tices of the peace who take recognizances of the persons licensed, and of their sur ties, in 107. each, that they will keep or derly houses. Every person, except the se who sell ale in fairs, neglecting to take out a licence shall pay a tine of 40s. for the first offence, 4. for the second, and 61. for the third, with costs. Licences are granted on the first of September, or within twenty days after. Ale-silver, in London, is a yearly tax paid to the lord mayor by all persons selling ale within the city. ALFA, among the Romans, was a term applied to games of chance in general; but particularly to one played with dice and tables. ALECTORIA, a stone said to be formed in the gall-bladders of old cocks to which the antients ascribed many fabulous virtues. It is called the alectorius lapis, and in English the cock-stone. A-LEE, in marine language, is when the wind crossing the line of a ship's course, presses her down on one side, which is called her lee-side: hence when the helm is moved to this side it is said to be a-re, or hard-a-lee. ALEGER, a sort of vinegar made of malt liquor. ALEMBICK, a vessel formerly used in distillation; commonly made of copper or glass: instead of which retorts and the worm-still are now employed. ALEIRIS, in botany, a genus of plants of the monogynia order, and hexandria class; and ranking under the natural order coronatiæ. There are nine species. 1. The farinosa, a native of North America. The capensis, a native of the Cape of Good Hope. 3. The hyacinthoides, or Guinea alue. 4. The Zeylanicia, or Ceylon aloe. 5. The fragrans, or true aloe, a native of Africa. 6. A. glauca, a native of the Cape. 7. A. uvaria, great orange-flowered aloe, a native also of the Çapë. S. A. pumila, small orange-flowered a oe. 9. A. Cochinchensis, a native of Cochin China. They are with us stove-plants. ALEXANDRIAN Manuscript, a copy of the New Testament in the British Museum, which was sent to Charles 1. by Cyrilas Lucar, patriarch of Constantinople, about 1630; and is supposed to have been wait ten by Thecla an Egyptian lady in the 4th century. Dr. Woide has published a fac simile of it. ALEXANDRINE, a kind of verse first used in a French poem entitled Alexander. It consists of twelve syllables. ALEXIPHARMICS, an obsolete physi cal term, applied to medicines for expell ing poison by sweating. ALFECCA, in astronomy, is the same star calledalso Alfea and Lucida corona ALGE, one of the seven families or tribes into which Linnæus has divided the vegetable kingdom. They denote those plants whose root, leaf, and stem are all one, and they comprehend all sea-weeds, and some other aquatic plants. In the sexual system they forin the third order of the 24th class cryptogamia, ALGEBRA, a method of calculating quantities in general by means of signs or characters. I has also been called specieus arithmetic, on account of the species or letters made use of in it; and by Sir Isaac Newton universal arithmetic, from its performing all arithmetical questions by inde terminate quantities. The word algebra is from the Arabic, in which language al-gjabr Wal-mokabila means the art of resolution and equation. Diophantus was the first Greek writer on algebra. His work, however, only extends to the solution of arithmetical indeterminate problems. In 1494, Lucas de Burgo, published at Venice, a treatise on algebra, which goes no farther than quadratic equations. After him came Stitilius, Scipio Ferreus, Cardan, Tartaglia, and others. In our own country the first writer upon algebra was Dr. Record, a physician, who published in 1557 a book entitled Cos Ingenit, or the Whetstone of Wit, which is a treatise of alge ra, the word cos alluding to cossic numbers, or the rule of cos, by which this art was sometimes called. 1590, Vieta published a new method of algeira, which consists in denoting both known and unknown quantities by symbels or letters He also invented the method of extracting the roots of equations by approximation. He was followed by our countrymen Oughtred and Harriot; the former applied the analytic method to geometry, and the latter left behind him his Treatise of the analytic art, in which he removed every thing superfluous in former methods, and introduced masy important discoveries, of which Des Cartes availed himself in the application of algebra to the higher geometry. From that time continual improvemen's have been made in algebra by various mathe maticians. Definitions. In 6. The sign + (plas or more) is the mark of addition. Thus, at means that the quantities represented by a and bare to be aided together. When no sign is prefixed, is understood. 3. The siga → (minus or less) denotes subtruction, as a-b, that is, the number represented by 6 is to be subtracted from that represented by a. 4 Quantities with the sign + prefixed, are called positive or afirmative; and those with the sign - negative quantities. 4 The sign X (or by denotes multiplication: as X means that 5 is to be mul uplied by 4. 6. is the mark of division; thus, ab means that a is divided by b. 7. A number prefixed to a letter is called a numeral coefficient When no number is expressed, I is understood. 8. A simple quantity consists of one part s: term, as 1, —ubc; 2 compound quan Rem. 5a-3a or 2a 4ab-16bc-mb The reason of this rule is that to subtract a negative quantity is the same as adding its positive value. MU TIPLICATION General Rule for the Signs. If the signs of the two terms are like, that of the product is, but if unlike, it is -. Case 1. To multiply two terms. Rule. Find the sign of the product by the general rule; then place after it the product of the numeral coefficients, and the letters one after another of DIVISION. Rule for the Signs. If the signs of the divisor and dividend are the same, that of the quotient is +, if unlike, it is -. The general rule in division, is to place the dividend above a line, and the divisor under it, expunging these letters which are in all the quantities of the dividend and divisor, and dividing the coefficients of all the terms by a common measure. Thus in dividin gitab +15ac by 2ad, expunge a out of all the terms,and divide the coefficients by 5, which gives the quotient 2b+3c 4d Powers of the same root are divided by subtracting their exponents. Thus if as is divided by 72 the quotient is as—2 or az. In dividing compound quantities the parts are to be ranged according to the powers of some one of its letters, thus if a+2ab+b2 is the dividend, and atte divisor, they are to be ranged according to the powers of a. Then divide the first term of the dividend by the first term of the divisor; multiply the quotient by the whole divisor and subtract the product from the dividend. If nothing remain, the operation is finished; but if there is a reinainder it becomes a new dividend. Thus as divided by a, gives a which is the first quotient: and the product of this divided by the whole divisor a+b, viz. a+ab being subtracted from the dividend there remains ab+5, Divide the first term of this divi end by the first term of the divisor, and join the quotient with is proper sign; then multiply the whole divisor by this part of the quotient and subtract the product from the new dividend, and continue the same operation till there be no remainder. |