Servetus, standing generally on ground where none cared to associate themselves with him, was as bitter as any in the use of epithets which charged his opponents with wilful perversity and measureless ignorance. With a knowledge of anatomy and physiology which enabled him to anticipate some at least of the discoveries of Harvey, and which give him a right to share in Harvey's fame, he exhibited in other respects a credulity scarcely inferior to that of the most credulous of his time, and made no small profit by the practice of astrology. When to this we add that the mystical element was strong in the man, and that he enforced his mysticism with a pertinacity equal to the thoroughness with which he rejected and derided the mysticism of others, we can readily understand the repulsion which his mode of disputation would cause in the minds even of the less bigoted reformers of the day. Having at first felt some liking for him, Ecolampadius soon waxed wroth at the "haughty, daring, and contentious stranger, while the comparatively gentle Zwingli and Melanchthon were gradually alienated from the "troublesome" Spaniard.

The trial of Servetus followed, Calvin appearing as his accuser. The conflict between him and the prisoner at the bar was conducted with much ability on both sides, and at the same time with no small bitterness. In the end, Servetus was condemned to be burned to death, a sentence which was carried into effect at Champel, near Geneva, on the 27th of October, 1553. Farel attended him in his last hours, and accompanied him to the place of execution. He had an interview also with Calvin on the morning of the fatal day, when he begged his forgiveness, but refused to withdraw any of his expressions.

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CALVIN'S PART IN THE EXECUTION OF SERVETUS. "Calvin," remarks Dr. Alexander in the last edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, has been much censured, not to say virtuperated, for his share in this unhappy transaction. In order to aggravate the charge against him, it has been alleged that it was by his invitation that Servetus came to Geneva; that it was by his urgency that the magistrates, over whom his influence was unbounded, condemned Servetus to death; and that it was to gratify a personal pique and through hatred of Servetus that he thus cruelly and relentlessly pursued him.

"Of these allegations not one can be proved, and some are undoubtedly false. It is not true that Calvin induced Servetus to come to Geneva; on the contrary, when Servetus inti

mated a wish to visit that city if it pleased Calvin that he should do so, Calvin intimated very plainly that it did not please him, and refused to pledge himself for his safety should he come, as he was resolved to persecute him to the death. That Calvin influenced the magistrates to condemn Servetus is true only in the same sense in which any public prosecutor, who pleads before the judge for the condemnation of one against whom he brings a criminal charge, may be said to influence the judge to condemn him. As to the assertion that Calvin's influence with the magistrates was unbounded, that falls to the ground before the fact that at this time he was in a state of antagonism to the dominant party. That Calvin hated the doctrines which he found in Servetus's book there can be no doubt, and that he thought the author of such views as were there advanced deserving of death, if he refused when reasoned with, to recant, is unhappily tras; but that he was actuated by any personal spite or animosity against Servetus himself, there is no evidence; on the contrary, we have his own express declaration, that after Servetus was convicted, he used no urgency that he should be pat to death, and at their last interview he told Servetus that he never had avenged private injuries, and assured him that if he would repent it would not be his fault if all the pious did not give him their hands. There is the fact also that Calvin used his endeavour to have the sentence which had been pronounced against Servet mitigated, death by burning being regarded by him as an "atrocity," for which he sought to substitute death by the sword.

"All that can be justly charged against Calvin in this matter is that he took the initiative bringing on the trial of Servetus; that, as his accuser, he prosecuted the suit against him with undue severity; and that he approved the sen tence which condemned Servetus to death When, however, it is remembered that the unanimous decision of the Swiss Churches was that Servetus deserved to die; that the general voice of Christendom was in favour of this; that even such a man as Melanchthon affirmed the justice of the sentence; that an eminent English divine of the next age should declare the proces against him "just and honourable;" and that only a few voices here and there were at the time raised against it, candid and impartial mea will be ready to accept the judgment of Coleridge that the death of Servetus was not "Calvin's guilt specially, but the common opprobrium of all European Christendom."

That Calvin should, in the circumstances in

wich he was now placed, show marks of intolertowards others, is not surprising; and to a palliation of his guilt we need not go ack to the time when he belonged to the Church Rome, nor yet to the notions of civil and r.gious liberty prevalent in his age. We have y to reflect on the constitution of the human nd, and the constant care necessary to prevent r in any hands from degenerating into ITTELY.

Servetus was executed on an extended emiance at some distance from the city, where he fastened to a stake surrounded by heaps df as wood and leaves, with his condemned

and the MS. he had sent to Calvin attached this girlle. His agony was long protracted: th his last breath he uttered a cry to the arar for mercy, expressed in words which wel that he persisted in his heresy. THEOLOGICAL CONTESTS; HARD AT WORK. The beretical doctrines of Servetus were not rushed by his death. None of those who en raced them, however, were visited with Ver penalties than that of banishment from eva For several years, much of Calvin's was taken up by the trials of these persons, ther with the conferences and controversies ng out of them.

In 1554, the year following Servetus's death, (arin published a work in defence of the doc

e of the Trinity against the errors of Ser, and to prove the right of the civil strate to punish heresy. Beza the same year listed a work on the like subject, in reply to the treatise of Castellio.

A time of troubles followed this triumph. The affair of Servetus gave Calvin's enemies vantage. Such was his unpopularity, that was repeatedly insulted in the streets; the ne party became audacious in its dis; the council exercised a censorship on the ing of the Reformer's writings; and the ance of Berne was used against him. A ange, however, soon took place in Calvin's

A large admission of refugees to the *tts of citizenship was carried against all it on, and greatly strengthened his hands; dan attempt of the Libertines to effect a dation, ended in the utter ruin of their party. Mural of them were captured and executed, and tence of death was passed on those who had *scaped.

The remainder of Calvin's life was undisturbed by political opposition. Theological contests, wever, continued to the end.

In spite of all this, Calvin produced a number of works independent of those called forth by the various controversies in which he was engaged. The most numerous of these were of an exegetical character. Not to speak of discourses taken down from his lips by faithful hearers, we have expository comments on nearly all the books of Scripture. These are written partly in Latin and partly in French, and, in the opinion of many, constitute the most valuable of his works. His candour and sincerity as an inquirer into the meaning of Scripture; his judiciousness, penetration, and tact in eliciting his author's meaning; his precision, condensation, and continuity as an expositor; the accuracy of his learning, the closeness of his reasoning, and the elegance of his style, all conspire to confer a high value on his exegetical works, and to make them at once rich sources of Biblical knowledge, and admirable models of Biblical exposition.

During this period Calvin also attended several conferences, which were held with a view to the settlement of religion. At the last of these, the celebrated Diet of Ratisbon, he was one of the representatives of Strasburg.

It was not only in religious matters that Calvin found employment for his restless energies; nothing was indifferent to him that concerned the welfare of the State or the advantage of its citizens. His work, it has been truly said, embraced everything; his advice was taken on every matter great and small that came before the council. He discussed questions of law, police, economy, trade and manufactures, as well as matters of doctrine and Church polity. To him Geneva was indebted for her trade in cloths and velvets, by which her citizens gained so much wealth, and for those sanitary regulations that made the city the admiration of every visitor. In Calvin we see also the founder of the College of Geneva, which still exists, and which has imparted instruction to so many eminent men.

In 1559, the Theological College was established. The funds necessary for the foundation were chiefly supplied by the munificence of Bonnivard, "the prisoner of Chillon." It was Calvin's earnest endeavour to supply these institutions with teachers of eminent learning. The rectorship of the College was conferred upon Beza, who, with other members of the Calvinistic party, had lately been obliged to leave Lausanne in consequence of disputes as to predestination.

The Reformer's fame and influence were now at their height. We find him called in as arbiter in the disputes of the English congregation

at Frankfort (1555); he corresponds with the King of Poland, and endeavours to guide the Reformation of that country; he influences the change of religion in Scotland by means of Knox ; his discipline is adopted by the Church of the Palatinate in 1560; he is in high regard with eminent members of the ruling party in England after the accession of Elizabeth, and at the same time is the very oracle of the Puritans; he directs the great movement which for the time seemed likely to prevail over Romanism in France.

A FRIEND AND BIOGRAPHER.

In 1549, Geneva received within its walls a person who was destined to play a conspicuous part in its history. Theodore de Bèze was born at Vezelay in 1519. He had been known to Calvin at Bourges, and subsequently led the life of a gay, accomplished, dissipated man of the world. A severe illness, however, changed his views, and he had married a woman with whom he had before cohabited. Calvin procured for him a professorship at Lausanne, and directed him in his theological reading. Beza soon became the Reformer's most confidential friend. He seconded him in controversy, and took up opponents whenever Calvin grew tired of them; he succeeded him in no inconsiderable part of his authority both at home and abroad; he edited some of his works, and wrote his life with "more of friendship," it has been said, “than of candour."

ILLNESS AND DEATH.

The strongest constitution could not have endured the incessant and exhausting labour to which Calvin devoted himself; so it was no wonder that his feeble frame soon broke down. Spite, however, of severe suffering and repeated attacks of illness, he manfully held on his way for twenty-eight years, setting fever, asthma, stone, and gout, the fruits for the most part of his sedentary habits and ceaseless activity, all at defiance.

Of all the testimonies to the merits of Calvin at this time, the most unsuspected is that of the canons of Noyon, who, in 1556, publicly returned thanks to God on occasion of his recovery from an illness which it was thought would prove mortal.

was born, and hanged a man who ventured to rebuild it.

It was no doubt the state of Calvin's health which prevented him going in 1561 to the fam 23 Conference of Poissy: nothing but his many pains and infirmities, as it appears from his earrespondence with Beza, who was sent to the Conference from Geneva, would have prevent 1 his attending an assembly which promised to be of so much consequence, and which was in leed remarkable in this respect, that from that time the followers of Calvin became known as a distinct sect, bearing the name of their leader.

Amidst all his sufferings, however, neither his public functions nor his literary labours ceased; he continued to edify the Church of Geneva by his sermons and his intercourse with the people, and to instruct Europe by his works; and to the last he maintained the same firmness of character which had distinguished him through life.

At last, early in the year 1564, it was clear that his earthly course was rapidly drawing to a close On the 6th of February he preached for the las time, having with great difficulty found breath enough to carry him through his sermon. After this he was several times carried into the church, but he never again was able to take part in the service. With noble disinterestedness, be DɩT refused to receive his stipend. on the ground that he was no longer able to discharge the duties his office.

He still worked on, however; and when remonstrated with for such unreasonable to... ze replied, "Would you that the Lord should find me idle when He comes?"

A deep impression seems to have been male on all who visited him on his death-bed. Thy saw in him the noble spectacle of a great spint that had done its life-work calmly and tris fully, passing through the gate of suffering ints the long-desired and firmly-expected repos d heaven.

The magistrates of Geneva attendel on m in his chamber, to take a solemn farewell be spoke to them at some length, exhorting tha to the performance of their duties, and desiring their forgiveness for such wrong as his natural vehemence might have led him to commit.

On his death-bed he took God to witness that he had preached the Gospel purely, and exhorted all about him to walk worthy of the divine good

emaciated, and on the 27th of May, 1564, he 21 without a struggle, in the fifty-fifth year of Lis

age.

"On that night and the following day," says Bera, Geneva seemed plunged in universal Learning. The State had to regret the loss of one of its wisest citizens; the Church its pastor; the academy its teacher; whilst private persons ft as if deprived of a common parent and amforter."

In obedience to Calvin's wish, his contempones abstained from marking his grave by any orial. The spot is not now known with ertainty.

PERSONAL APPEARANCE AND CHARACTER. The person of Calvin was middle-sized and aturally delicate; his habits were frugal and ostentatious; and he was so sparing in food, at for many years he had only one meal the day. He had a clear understanding, an relible memory, and a firmness and inflexitity of purpose which no opposition could overez, no variety of objects defeat, no vicissitude

ake. In his principles he was devout and #cere, and the purity of his character in private de was without a stain.

- His grace in preaching," we are told, "was the meanest of all other gifts in him; yet even that was so had in honour and estimation, that a hearer of his being asked wherefore he came not to other men's sermons as well as Calvin's, wered, that if Calvin and St. Paul himself *d preach both at one hour, he should leave * Paul to hear Calvin,"

The private character of Calvin was what one nght expect from his public reputation. He was inclined to be severe and irritable, but at the same time no one ever lived who was more

and truthful; so long as conscience would permit, he stuck fast by his friends, and never, far as was possible for frail human nature, kan unfair advantage of his adversaries. Now and again we find him cheerful and even tous among his intimate associates. "I Lave been a witness of him for sixteen years," 7 Beza, “and I think I am fully entitled to my that in this man there was exhibited to all an example of the life and death of the Christian, such as it will not be easy to depreciate, such as will be difficult to emulate."

CALVIN'S POSITION AND INFLUENCE. We can hardly sum up this great character in raze more just than that of Mr. Thos. H. Iyer in his "Life of John Calvin :"—

"In any circumstances, his wonderful abilities d extensive learning would have made him a tining light among the doctors of the Reforma

tion; a visit to Geneva made him the head of a numerous and powerful sect. Naturally deficient in that courage which forms so prominent a trait in Luther, and which prompted him to beard King and Emperor face-to-face, Calvin arrived at Geneva at a time when the rough and initiatory work of reform had already been accomplished by his bolder friend Farel.

"Some peculiar circumstances in the political condition of that place favoured the views which he seems to have formed very shortly after his arrival. By the extent of its territory, and the number of its population, a small city; by its natural and artificial strength, and by its Swiss alliances, an independent State, secure from the attacks of its powerful neighbours; by its laws and institution a Republic, tending towards an oligarchy; and by the enthusiasm of a new religion which had helped to establish its civil liberties, disposed to bend its neck to the yoke of the Gospel, Geneva offered every facility to a master mind like Calvin's, which had conceived the idea of establishing a theocracy, of which he himself was to be the oracle, the prophet, and the dictator, and from which, as from a common centre, his peculiar opinions were to spread in sucocssive and still expanding circles through the rest of Europe.

"The tact and skill, the fortitude, the consistency of purpose and energy of will which he displayed in carrying out his design, are worthy of all admiration.

"That a man who devoted himself so ardently to the study of divinity, and who laboured with such industry and warmth to defend and propagate the Reformation, should have been influenced solely by the hope of attaining reputation and power, is scarcely credible; whilst, on the other hand, there are parts of his conduct which it would be difficult to refer to purely religious motives. An irritable pride is one of the salient features of his character. This feeling particularly betrayed itself where his literary reputation or his authority as a teacher was concerned; for these were the instruments of his power and influence. ... Beza admits Calvin's proneness to anger, which, however, is sometimes more correctly characterized by Calvin himself by the name of morosity. And, indeed, not only his conduct, but the tenor of the greater part of his controversial tracts, show that a man may be a profound theologian, and yet not comprehend the true spirit of Christianity.

"Calvin's mode of life was frugal and temperate, and he was untainted with the mean passion of avarice. The last is peculiarly the vice of

little minds; and it may be safely affirmed that no man of enlarged understanding and commanding genius ever loved money for its own sake. Calvin's ambition was of a different kind. He rather sought to leave his name and principles to posterity than a few thousand dollars more or less to his heirs.

Like all men of truly deep thought, he never leaves his reader at a loss for his meaning. His Latin style is not marked by unnecessary verbiage, merely for the sake of rounding a period, nor by the affectation of Ciceronian purity, the besetting sin of the writers of that age; and if it be truly said that the best test of modern Latin is that it should be read with facility and pleasure by a scholar, Calvin's may be pronounced excellent.

The merits of Calvin as a commentator have been universally recognized, even by those opposed to his peculiar views. His Institutes' bear the impress of an independent and comprehensive study of Scripture, from which, aided by the works of the Fathers, and especially of St. Augustine, Calvin built up his system; which deserves the praise of originality rather for the coherence and symmetry with which it is arranged, and which shows it to be the work of a single mind, than for any novelty in the views which it developes. Probably his best claims to originality with regard to any single part of his doctrines, rests on that of the Lord's Supper."

His writings are very numerous; but, except his "Christian Institutes," his Commentaries on the Bible, and a few others, they have long been covered with undisturbed dust, though in their day none of his works were without their influence. There have been various collections of his works. In 1552, all his minor pieces, or “Opuscula," were collected and published at Geneva. In 1576, a similar collection was made of his theological tracts; and the same year Beza published a collection of his letters, with a life of Calvin. We find also in Senebier (Hist. Lett. de Geneve, tom. i.) not only a list of all Calvin's publications, but a catalogue of sermons preached by him, which yet remain in MS. in the public library of Geneva.

WHAT IS CALVINISM?

The system of religious doctrine and church government maintained by Calvin and his followers now demands our attention. Calvin, as we have seen, published his system in his "Christian Institutes " in the year 1536; but it does not appear to have obtained the name of Calvinism, nor its supporters the name of Calvinists, till the Conference of Poissy in 1561.

The Reformer, as we have already said, was not himself present at that assembly, being prevented from attending by his local duties and the ill state of his health; but we see from his correspondence with Beza, the depaty from Geneva, how deep was his interest in its proceedings, and that nothing was done on the part of the Reformers without his knowledge and advice. In the debate which took place on the Augsburg Confession, the points of difference between the Lutherans and Calvinists were drawn out; and they were such as that from thenceforth the latter became known as a distinct sect under that denomination.

The tenets of Calvinism respect the doctrines of the Trinity, predestination, or particular els tion and reprobation, original sin, particular redemption, effectual or irresistible grace in regeneration, justification by faith, and the perseverance of saints; together also with the government and discipline of the Church, the nature of the eucharist, and the qualification of those entitled to partake of it. The great leading principles of the system, however, are the abeolute decrees of God, the spiritual presence of Christ in the eucharist, and the independence of

the Church.

Calvinism was, perhaps, like Lutheranism, exemplified first at Strasburg; where, in the year 1538, Calvin established a French Church on h own plan. But it was at Geneva that the system was seen in all its vigour; and from thence it spread into France, Germany, Prussia, the United Provinces, England, and Scotland. To this last place it was carried by Knox, the disciple and intimate correspondent of Calvin; and as within the little territory of Geneva there was neither room nor need for the parochial sessions, prestyteries, provincial synods and general assembly, into which the presbyterial government expans itself in a large community, we shall bridy advert to its leading features in Scotland as s appeared there in the lifetime of Knox. We shall thus indeed see the Church of Scotland in its infancy; but at the same time-and it is that we have chiefly in view-we shall thas perhaps have the best idea of the matured opinions of the great Reformer.

CALVINISM IN SCOTLAND.

The Confession of Faith, ratified by the Sects Parliament in 1560, declares that by the sin our first parents, "commonly called original sia, the image of God was utterly defaced in man, ar 1 he and his posterity of nature became enemies of God, slaves to Satan, and servants unto sin; in