under it, they are not effentially nor fpecifically different. But if any one will make minuter divifions from differences that he knows in the internal frame of watches, and to fuch precife complex ideas give names that hall prevail; they will then be new fpecies to them who have thofe ideas with names to them, and can, by those differences, diftinguith watches into these feveral forts, and then watch will be a generical name. But yet they would be no diftinct fpecies to men ignorant of clock-work and the inward contrivances of watches, who had no other idea but the outward fhape and bulk, with the marking of the hours by the hand. For to them all thofe other names would be but fynonymous terms for the fame idea, and fignify no more, nor no other thing but a watch. Juft thus, I think, it is in natural things. No-body will doubt that the wheels or fprings (if I may fo fay) within, are different in a rational man and a changeling, no more than that there is a difference in the frame between a drill and a changeling. But whether one, or both the differences be effential or fpecifical, is only to be known to us, by their agreement or difagreement with the complex idea that the name man ftands for: for by that alone can it be determined, whether one, or both, or neither of those be a man or no.

Species of ar§. 40. From what has been before faid, tificial things we may fee the reason why, in the fpecies Jefs confufed of artificial things, there is generally lefs than natural. confufion and uncertainty, than in natural. Because an artificial thing being a production of man, which the artificer defigned, and therefore well knows the idea of, the name of it is fuppofed to ftand for no other idea, nor to import any other effence than what is certainly to be known, and eafy enough to be apprehended. For the idea or effence of the feveral forts of artificial things confifting, for the most part, in nothing but the determinate figure of fentible parts; and fometimes motion depending thereon, which the artificer fafhions in matter, fuch as he finds for his turn; it is not beyond the reach of our faculties to attain a certain idea thereof, and to fettle the fignification of

the

the names, whereby the fpecies of artificial things are diftinguished with lefs doubt, obfcurity, and equivocation, than we can in things natural, whose differences and operations depend upon contrivances beyond the reach of our discoveries.

Artificial things of diftinct species.

§. 41. I must be excufed here if I think artificial things are of diftinct fpecies as well as natural: fince I find they are as plainly and orderly ranked into forts, by different abstract ideas, with general names annexed to them, as diftinct one from another as thofe of natural fubftances. For why fhould we not think a watch and piftol, as distinct fpecies one from another, as a horse and a dog, they being expreffed in our minds by dif tinct ideas, and to others by diftinct appellations?

names.

§. 42. This is farther to be obferved Subftances concerning fubftances, that they alone of alone have all our several forts of ideas have particular proper or proper names, whereby one only particular thing is fignified. Because in fimple ideas, modes, and relations, it seldom happens that men have occafion to mention often this or that particular when it is abfent. Befides, the greatest part of mixed modes, being actions which perish in their birth, are not capable of a lafting duration as substances, which are the actors: and wherein the fimple ideas that make up the complex ideas defigned by the name, have a lasting union.

S. 43. I muft beg pardon of my reader, for having dwelt fo long upon this fubject, Difficulty to and perhaps with fome obfcurity. But I words. defire it may be confidered how difficult it

is to lead another by words into the thoughts of things, ftripped of thofe fpecifical differences we give them which things, if I name not, I fay nothing; and if I do name them, I thereby rank them into fome fort or other, and fuggeft to the mind the usual abstract idea of that fpecies; and fo crofs my purpose. For to talk of a man, and to lay by, at the fame time, the ordinary fignification of the name man, which is Kk 4

our

our complex idea ufually annexed to it; and bid the reader confider man as he is in himself, and as he is really diftinguished from others in his internal conftitution, or real effence; that is, by fomething he knows not what; looks like trifling: and yet thus one muft do who would speak of the fuppofed real effences and fpecies of things, as thought to be made by nature, if it be but only to make it understood, that there is no fuch thing fignified by the general names, which fubftances are called by. But because it is difficult by known familiar names to do this, give me leave to endeavour by an example to make the different confideration the mind has of specific names and ideas a little more clear; and to fhow how the complex ideas of modes are referred fometimes to archetypes in the minds of other intelligent beings; or, which is the fame, to the fignification annexed by others to their received names; and, fometimes to no archetypes at all: Give me leave alfo to fhow how the mind always refers its ideas of fubftances, either to the fubstances themselves, or to the fignification of their names as to the archetypes; and alfo to make plain the nature of fpecies, or forting of things, as apprehended, and made ufe of by us; and of the effences belonging to thofe fpecies, which is perhaps of more moment, to discover the extent and certainty of our knowledge, than we at first imagine.

in kinneah

Inftances of §. 44. Let us fuppofe Adam in the state mixed modes of a grown man, with a good understanding, but in a strange country, with all things and niouph. new and unknown about him; and no other faculties, to attain the knowledge of them, but what one of this age has now. He obferves Lamech more melancholy than ufual, and imagines it to be from a fufpicion he has of his wife Adah (whom he most ardently loved) that he had too much kindness for another man. Adam difcourfes thefe his thoughts to Eve, and defires her to take care that Adah commit not folly and in thefe difcourfes with Eve he makes use of these two new words, kinneah and niouph. In time Adam's

6

Adam's mistake appears, for he finds Lamech's trouble proceeded from having killed a man: but yet the two names kinneah and niouph (the one standing for fufpicion, in a husband, of his wife's difloyalty to him, and the other for the act of committing difloyalty) loft not their diftinct fignifications. It is plain then that here were two diftinct complex ideas of mixed modes with names to them, two diftinct fpecies of actions effentially different; I ask wherein confifted the effences of these two diftinct fpecies of actions? And it is plain it confifted in a precife combination of fimple ideas, different in one from the other. I ask, Whether the complex idea in Adam's mind, which he called kinneah, were adequate or no? And it is plain it was; for it being a combination of fimple ideas, which he, without any regard to any archetype, without respect to any thing as a pattern, voluntarily put together, abstracted and gave the name kinneah to, to express in short to others, by that one found, all the fimple ideas contained and united in that complex one; it must neceffarily follow, that it was an adequate idea. His own choice having made that combination, it had all in it he intended it fhould, and fo could not but be perfect, could not be adequate, it being referred to no other archetype which it was supposed to represent.

S. 45. These words, kinneah and niouph, by degrees grew into common ufe; and then the cafe was fomewhat altered. Adam's children had the fame faculties, and thereby the fame power that he had to make what complex ideas of mixed modes they pleased in their own minds; to abstract them, and make what founds they pleafed the figns of them: but the use of names being to make our ideas within us known to others, that cannot be done, but when the fame fign ftands for the fame idea in two who would communicate their thoughts and difcourfe together. Those therefore of Adam's children, that found these two words, 'kinneah and niouph, in familiar use, could not take them for infignificant founds; but must needs

conclude,

conclude, they ftood for fomething, for certain ideas, abstract ideas, they being general names, which abstract ideas, were the effences of the fpecies diftinguifhed by thofe names. If therefore they would use these words, as names of species already established and agreed on, they were obliged to conform the ideas in their minds, fignified by thefe names, to the ideas that they stood for in other men's minds, as to their patterns and archetypes; and then indeed their ideas of thefe complex modes were liable to be inadequate, as being very apt (efpecially thofe that confifted of combinations of many fimple ideas) not to be exactly conformable to the ideas in other men's minds, ufing the fame names; though for this there be usually a remedy at hand, which is to afk the meaning of any word we underftand not, of him that uses it: it being as impoffible to know certainly what the words jealoufy and adultery (which I think anfwer and 8) ftand for in another man's mind, with whom I would difcourfe about them; as it was impoffible, in the beginning of language, to know what kinneah and niouph ftood: for in another man's mind, without explication, they be ing voluntary figns in every one.

Inftance of fubftances in zahab.

§. 46. Let us now alfo confider, after the fame manner, the names of fubftances in their first application. One of Adam's children, roving in the mountains, lights on a glittering fubftance which pleafes his eye; home he carries it to Adam, who, upon confideration of it, finds it to be hard, to have a bright yellow colour, and an exceeding great weight. Thefe, perhaps, at first, are all the qualities he takes notice of in it; and abtracting this complex idea, confifting of a fubftance having that peculiar bright yellownefs, and a weight very great in proportion to its bulk, he gives it the name zahab, to denominate and mark all fubftances that have these fenfible qualities in them. It is evident now that, in this cafe, Adam acts quite differently from what he did before in forming thofe ideas of mixed modes, to which he gave the names kinneah

and