with Chance of Success in Employments-Gains of Literary

and Professional Men-Inadequate pay of Soldiers and

Sailors-Motives to a Naval and Military Life-Effects of

Long Apprenticeships, the Poor-laws, and Immunities of

Corporations on Freedom of Industry-Combinations of

Trades, like Monopolies
184

CHAP. VII.

WAGES OF LABOUR.

Reduction of Wages increases Supply of Labour-Effects

of Speculation on Wages-Legitimate and Illusive Specu-

lations-Agricultural Speculation during the War, and

Mercantile Speculation of 1825-Rate of Wages determined

by the Unemployed, not Employed Workmen-Conse-

quence of a trifling Excess of Labour-High Wages depend

solely on the Conduct of the Working Classes-Futility

of various popular Expedients exposed-Government_im-

potent, as respects Condition of Labouring Classes-Can-

not relieve an Overstocked Labour Market-France in 1830

-Taxation-Lavish Public Expenditure indefensible-

Home Colonization

CHAP. VIII.

CAUSES OF HIGH WAGES.

205

Effect on Wages of an Increase in the Incomes of Individuals

-Wages increase with the increase of national Capital-

State of Society most favourable to the Working Classes-

Population increased faster than Capital in Ireland-Demand

for Labour increased by Security of Property --Necessity

of Freedom in the Employment of Capital and Industry--

Effects of War and civil Commotion on the Condition of the

Industrious Orders
226

CHAP. IX.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ON WAGES.

Wages can only be settled by Competition of Workmen

Wages of Farm Servants and in Factories-Distinction

between skilled and unskilled Labour-Standard of Living

-High Wages not a source of Idleness and Vice-Ne-

cessity of Relaxation-Effects of Arts, Trades, and Pro-

fessions, on Health-Danger of Low Diet and degrading

Habits-Contrast of a Potato and Wheat-fed Population-

Opinions of M'Culloch and Adam Smith-Government not

less than Society interested in the wellbeing of the Working

Classes

236

CHAP. X.

FLUCTUATIONS IN EMPLOYMENTS.

Variations in Rural Labour-Fluctuations in Manufacturing

Employments-the Commercial Cycle-Changes of Fashion

and the Site of Manufactories-Effects of Machinery-

Not lessened aggregate Employment of Society, but dis-

placed particular Branches of Industry-Shearmen, Flax-

dressers, and Hand-loom Weavers-Enormous Increase

of the Manufacturing, compared with the Agricultural

Population-Specific Advantages of Machinery stated-

Suggestions for Mitigating the Effects of Fluctuations of

Employment-Tailors, Brushmakers, and Carpet-manu-

facturers-Methods adopted by Masters to meet temporary

Stagnation of Trade-Novelty and Importance of the Sub-

ject to Statesmen and Economical Writers

CHAP. XI.

UNIONS OF TRADES.

252

Classes of the Industrious confederated either for an increase

of Profit or Wages--Origin and Downfal of the Trading

Guilds and Fraternities-First Notice of Combinations of

Workmen-National Association for the Protection of La-

bour-Principles and Constitution of Trades' Unions-How

far they are defensible-Examples of Combinations hurtful

to Operatives-Better Wages should be high than Profits--

Comparative Treatment of Factory Children now and

Thirty Years ago--Proof that Wages are not always regu-

lated by Profit, and that Industry sometimes needs legis-

lative Protection-Foreign Trade not injured by Unions

but Competition of Manufacturers-Effect of Extreme Low

Prices on Masters and Workmen
269

CHAP. XII.

EMPLOYMENT FUND-SOCIETIES.

Principle of Supply and Demand mostly regulates Profits and

Wages-Social Evils of Confederacies of Work men-Effects

of a Combination of Shopkeepers-High Wages of Tailors

in the Metropolis the result of their Combination-Additional

Objects which Trade Societies ought to Embrace-Employ

ment Fund-Societies-Suggestions for meeting Fluctuations

in Trade-Proportion Wages form of Prices-Corn-laws.

CHAP. XIII.

RENT OF LAND.

290

Difference between the Practical and Scientific Inquirer-

Analogy between Rent and the Interest of Money-Origin

of the Appropriation of Land--Increase of Cultivation with

the Increase of Population--Effects produced on Rent and

Prices by Cultivation extending from richer to Poorer Soils

-Dr. Anderson's Theory of Rent-Rent increases with the

Increase of Capital and Industry-Component parts of Rent

-The Machinery of Agriculture less perfect than that of

Manufactures-Rent of Land determined by the Value of

Produce, and the Value of Produce determined by the Cost

of raising it on the poorest Soils-Tithe, Poor-rate, and

Land-tax fall on Landlords--Abolition of Rent would not

render Corn cheaper, nor Wages higher; it would only put

Farmers in the places of their Landlords

CHAP. XIV.

TENDENCY TO OVER-POPULATION.

301

Mankind increases faster than Food-Limit to the increase of

the Species-Further Increase in all Countries checked by

Poverty or Prudence-Religious Objection answered-Re-

medies of Over-Population--Natural and Artificial Checks

-Deterioration of Society by the Operation of the Natural

Check of Misery-Reasons for Marriage in preference to

Concubinage-Circumstances which make Marriage an

Evil-Scriptural Injunction, "Be Fruitful and Multiply,"

considered-Obligation to maintain Children--Policy of

further Legislative Restraints on Marriage-Decrease in

the number of Marriages-Proposal for divesting Wedlock

of its impoverishing Consequences-Emigration an unob-

jectionable Remedy of a Redundant Fopulation-Symp-

toms of an Excess of People described--Question of the

Relative Increase of Population and Capital during the last

Thirty Years-Decrease of Mortality--Over-Population

results from defect of Moral Culture-Importance of the

Subject, and the Poor more interested in it than the Rich--

A Popular Knowledge of the Principles of Population the

only permanent Remedy of Indigence and low Wages 317

:

CHAP. XV

POOR-LAWS.

Right of the Poor to Parish Relief---Their Claim to a fourth

part of Tithe-Queries of the House of Lords relative to

able-bodied Poor-Eleven Objections to Poor laws an-

swered-Under an improved System, Pauperism has de-

clined relatively to the Population-Poor-laws not tended

to increase the number of People-Not fostered improvi-

dent Habits-Example of Scotland considered-Working

Classes of England and other Countries---Principles and

Policy of the Poor-laws stated and defended-Obligations

they impose on the Rich to interest themselves in the state

of the Poor---Mendicity or Poor Assessment the only alter-

native---Impotence of general System of voluntary Charity

---The Poor often the chief Obstacle to the adoption of

Plans for their own Benefit---Their Condition can only be

improved by the Intervention of the Affluent---Obligations

imposed by the Laws of Infanticide---Provision for the

Poor in other Countries---Utility of the Poor-laws proved

by Experience---Description of Persons who ought to be

entitled to Parish Relief---Police as well as Charity, the

object of Poor-laws---Suggestions for Improvement of

Poor-laws---Law of Settlement---Unequal size of Parishes

---Unequal Pressure of Poor-rate on real and chattel Pro-

perty---Mendicity in the Metropolis---Practical Hints rela-

tive to the Poor and Administration of the Poor-laws 352

PART III.

POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY.

CHAP. I.

INTRODUCTION.

Progress of Political Philosophy---General Principles---Rous-

seau, Godwin, Bentham, Mill, Paley, Burke, and Paine---

Effects of the French Revolution on the Practice of Govern-

ments---Misapplication of Abtract Propositions

CHAP. II.

NATURAL AND CIVIL LIBERTY

b

409

423

Object and Necessity of Education-Ought to be adapted to

future Occupation-Maintenance and Choice of Employ-

ment-Branches of Knowledge constituting Popular Instruc-

tion-Domestic Economy-Art of Preserving Health-

Laws and Moral Philosophy-Property and Government-

Political Economy-Superstitious Fears and Apprehensions

-Popular Education, a duty imposed on the State-How it

may be promoted by Parish Schools, the Magistracy, Clergy,

Fiscal Regulations, and Employers of Workpeople-Objec-

tions to National Education considered-Progress of Edu-

cation in England-Connexion of Education with the In-

crease of Crime-Improvement in the Character of the

People-Distinction between Moral and Physical Knowledge

-Influence of Education on Happiness and Conduct of

Life.

494