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with Chance of Success in Employments-Gains of Literary
and Professional Men-Inadequate pay of Soldiers and
Sailors-Motives to a Naval and Military Life-Effects of
Long Apprenticeships, the Poor-laws, and Immunities of
Corporations on Freedom of Industry-Combinations of
Trades, like Monopolies 184
CHAP. VII.
WAGES OF LABOUR.
Reduction of Wages increases Supply of Labour-Effects
of Speculation on Wages-Legitimate and Illusive Specu-
lations-Agricultural Speculation during the War, and
Mercantile Speculation of 1825-Rate of Wages determined
by the Unemployed, not Employed Workmen-Conse-
quence of a trifling Excess of Labour-High Wages depend
solely on the Conduct of the Working Classes-Futility
of various popular Expedients exposed-Government_im-
potent, as respects Condition of Labouring Classes-Can-
not relieve an Overstocked Labour Market-France in 1830
-Taxation-Lavish Public Expenditure indefensible-
Home Colonization
CHAP. VIII.
CAUSES OF HIGH WAGES.
205
Effect on Wages of an Increase in the Incomes of Individuals
-Wages increase with the increase of national Capital-
State of Society most favourable to the Working Classes-
Population increased faster than Capital in Ireland-Demand
for Labour increased by Security of Property --Necessity
of Freedom in the Employment of Capital and Industry--
Effects of War and civil Commotion on the Condition of the
Industrious Orders 226
CHAP. IX.
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ON WAGES.
Wages can only be settled by Competition of Workmen
Wages of Farm Servants and in Factories-Distinction
between skilled and unskilled Labour-Standard of Living
-High Wages not a source of Idleness and Vice-Ne-
cessity of Relaxation-Effects of Arts, Trades, and Pro-
fessions, on Health-Danger of Low Diet and degrading
Habits-Contrast of a Potato and Wheat-fed Population-
Opinions of M'Culloch and Adam Smith-Government not
less than Society interested in the wellbeing of the Working
Classes
236
CHAP. X.
FLUCTUATIONS IN EMPLOYMENTS.
Variations in Rural Labour-Fluctuations in Manufacturing
Employments-the Commercial Cycle-Changes of Fashion
and the Site of Manufactories-Effects of Machinery-
Not lessened aggregate Employment of Society, but dis-
placed particular Branches of Industry-Shearmen, Flax-
dressers, and Hand-loom Weavers-Enormous Increase
of the Manufacturing, compared with the Agricultural
Population-Specific Advantages of Machinery stated-
Suggestions for Mitigating the Effects of Fluctuations of
Employment-Tailors, Brushmakers, and Carpet-manu-
facturers-Methods adopted by Masters to meet temporary
Stagnation of Trade-Novelty and Importance of the Sub-
ject to Statesmen and Economical Writers
CHAP. XI.
UNIONS OF TRADES.
252
Classes of the Industrious confederated either for an increase
of Profit or Wages--Origin and Downfal of the Trading
Guilds and Fraternities-First Notice of Combinations of
Workmen-National Association for the Protection of La-
bour-Principles and Constitution of Trades' Unions-How
far they are defensible-Examples of Combinations hurtful
to Operatives-Better Wages should be high than Profits--
Comparative Treatment of Factory Children now and
Thirty Years ago--Proof that Wages are not always regu-
lated by Profit, and that Industry sometimes needs legis-
lative Protection-Foreign Trade not injured by Unions
but Competition of Manufacturers-Effect of Extreme Low
Prices on Masters and Workmen 269
CHAP. XII.
EMPLOYMENT FUND-SOCIETIES.
Principle of Supply and Demand mostly regulates Profits and
Wages-Social Evils of Confederacies of Work men-Effects
of a Combination of Shopkeepers-High Wages of Tailors
in the Metropolis the result of their Combination-Additional
Objects which Trade Societies ought to Embrace-Employ
ment Fund-Societies-Suggestions for meeting Fluctuations
in Trade-Proportion Wages form of Prices-Corn-laws.
CHAP. XIII.
RENT OF LAND.
290
Difference between the Practical and Scientific Inquirer-
Analogy between Rent and the Interest of Money-Origin
of the Appropriation of Land--Increase of Cultivation with
the Increase of Population--Effects produced on Rent and
Prices by Cultivation extending from richer to Poorer Soils
-Dr. Anderson's Theory of Rent-Rent increases with the
Increase of Capital and Industry-Component parts of Rent
-The Machinery of Agriculture less perfect than that of
Manufactures-Rent of Land determined by the Value of
Produce, and the Value of Produce determined by the Cost
of raising it on the poorest Soils-Tithe, Poor-rate, and
Land-tax fall on Landlords--Abolition of Rent would not
render Corn cheaper, nor Wages higher; it would only put
Farmers in the places of their Landlords
CHAP. XIV.
TENDENCY TO OVER-POPULATION.
301
Mankind increases faster than Food-Limit to the increase of
the Species-Further Increase in all Countries checked by
Poverty or Prudence-Religious Objection answered-Re-
medies of Over-Population--Natural and Artificial Checks
-Deterioration of Society by the Operation of the Natural
Check of Misery-Reasons for Marriage in preference to
Concubinage-Circumstances which make Marriage an
Evil-Scriptural Injunction, "Be Fruitful and Multiply,"
considered-Obligation to maintain Children--Policy of
further Legislative Restraints on Marriage-Decrease in
the number of Marriages-Proposal for divesting Wedlock
of its impoverishing Consequences-Emigration an unob-
jectionable Remedy of a Redundant Fopulation-Symp-
toms of an Excess of People described--Question of the
Relative Increase of Population and Capital during the last
Thirty Years-Decrease of Mortality--Over-Population
results from defect of Moral Culture-Importance of the
Subject, and the Poor more interested in it than the Rich--
A Popular Knowledge of the Principles of Population the
only permanent Remedy of Indigence and low Wages 317
:
CHAP. XV
POOR-LAWS.
Right of the Poor to Parish Relief---Their Claim to a fourth
part of Tithe-Queries of the House of Lords relative to
able-bodied Poor-Eleven Objections to Poor laws an-
swered-Under an improved System, Pauperism has de-
clined relatively to the Population-Poor-laws not tended
to increase the number of People-Not fostered improvi-
dent Habits-Example of Scotland considered-Working
Classes of England and other Countries---Principles and
Policy of the Poor-laws stated and defended-Obligations
they impose on the Rich to interest themselves in the state
of the Poor---Mendicity or Poor Assessment the only alter-
native---Impotence of general System of voluntary Charity
---The Poor often the chief Obstacle to the adoption of
Plans for their own Benefit---Their Condition can only be
improved by the Intervention of the Affluent---Obligations
imposed by the Laws of Infanticide---Provision for the
Poor in other Countries---Utility of the Poor-laws proved
by Experience---Description of Persons who ought to be
entitled to Parish Relief---Police as well as Charity, the
object of Poor-laws---Suggestions for Improvement of
Poor-laws---Law of Settlement---Unequal size of Parishes
---Unequal Pressure of Poor-rate on real and chattel Pro-
perty---Mendicity in the Metropolis---Practical Hints rela-
tive to the Poor and Administration of the Poor-laws 352
PART III.
POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY.
CHAP. I.
INTRODUCTION.
Progress of Political Philosophy---General Principles---Rous-
seau, Godwin, Bentham, Mill, Paley, Burke, and Paine---
Effects of the French Revolution on the Practice of Govern-
ments---Misapplication of Abtract Propositions
CHAP. II.
NATURAL AND CIVIL LIBERTY
b
409
423
Object and Necessity of Education-Ought to be adapted to
future Occupation-Maintenance and Choice of Employ-
ment-Branches of Knowledge constituting Popular Instruc-
tion-Domestic Economy-Art of Preserving Health-
Laws and Moral Philosophy-Property and Government-
Political Economy-Superstitious Fears and Apprehensions
-Popular Education, a duty imposed on the State-How it
may be promoted by Parish Schools, the Magistracy, Clergy,
Fiscal Regulations, and Employers of Workpeople-Objec-
tions to National Education considered-Progress of Edu-
cation in England-Connexion of Education with the In-
crease of Crime-Improvement in the Character of the
People-Distinction between Moral and Physical Knowledge
-Influence of Education on Happiness and Conduct of
Life.
494