by making his heels swell, or his coat unthrifty; and if such appearances occur, mash him, and begin his scourings, otherwise abstain from physicking until he is in better health. As he improves in condition, increase his exercise, but not to such a degree as to make him sweat. His food must now be the best oats and beans, with wheaten or barley bread; the beans and cats are to be put into a big, and beaten till the hulls are all off, and thon winnowed clean; and the bread, instead of being chipped in the common way, is to have the crust clean off. 6717. If the horse be in good flesh and spirits when taken up for his month's preparation, cordials are altogether unnecessary; and the chief business will be to give him good food, and so much exercise as will keep him in wind, without over-sweating or fatiguing him. When he takes larger exercise afterwards, towards the end of the month, it will be proper to have some horses in the place to run against him. This will put him upon his mettle, and the beating them will give him spirits. This, however, is to be cautiously observed, that he has not an injurious, or in the language of jockeys, a bloody heat given him for ten days or a fortnight before the plate is to be run for; and that the last heat that is given him the day before the race must be in his clothes this will make him run with greatly more vigour when stripped for the race, and feeling the cold wind on every part, In the second week, the horse should have the same food and more exercise: and in the last fortnight he must have dried oats, that have been hulled by beating; after this jockeys wet them with the whites of eggs, beaten up, and then laid out in the sum to dry; and when as dry as before, the horse is to have them: this sort of food being considered by them as very light of digestion, and very good for the creature's wind. The beans in this time should be given more sparingly and the bread should be made of three parts wheat and one part beans, or of wheat and barley in equal parts. If he should become costive under this course, be must then have bran-water to drink, or some ale and whites of eggs beaten together; and keep his body moist. In the last week all mashing is to be omitted, and barley-water given him in its place and every day, till the day before the race, he should have his fill of hay, then he must have it given him more sparingly, that he may have time to digest it; and in the morning of the race-day, he must have a toast or two of white bread soaked in ale, and the same just before he is led out of the field. This is an excellent method, because the two extremes of fulness and fasting are at this time to be equally avoided; the one affecting his wind, and the other occasioning a faintness that may make him lose. After he has had his food, the litter is to be shook up, and the stable kept quiet, that he may be disturbed by nothing till he is taken out to run. 6718. In the choice of a rider for winning a race, it is necessary, as far as possible, to select one that is not only expert and able, but honest. He must have a very close seat, his knees being turned close to the saddle skirts, and held firmly there; and the toes turned inwards, so that the spurs may be turned outward to the horse's belly his left hand governing the horse's mouth, and his right the whip. During the whole time of the race, he must take care to sit firm in the saddle, without waving or standing up in the stirrups. Some jockeys fancy the last a becoming seat; but it is certain, that all motions of this kind do really incommode the horse. In spurring the horse, it is not to be done by sticking the calves of the legs close to the horse's sides, as if it were intended to press the wind out of his body; but, on the contrary, the toes are to be turned a little outwards, that the heels being brought in, the spurs may just be brought to touch the sides. A sharp touch of this kind will be of more service toward the quickening of a horse's pace, and will sooner draw blood than one of the common coarse kicks. The expert jockey will never spur his horse until there is great occasion, and then he will avoid striking him under the fore bowels between the shoulders and the girt; this is the tenderest part of a horse, and a touch there is to be reserved for the greatest extremity. 6719 As to whipping the horse, it ought always to be done over the shoulder, on the near side, except in very hard running, and on the point of victory; then the horse is to be struck on the flank with a strong jerk; for the skin is the most tender of all there, and most sensible of the lash. When a horse is whipped and spurred, and is at the top of his speed, if he clap his ears in his pole, or whisk his tail, it is a proof that the jockey treats him hard, and then he ought to give him as much comfort as he can by sawing the snaffle backwards and forwards in his mouth, and by that means forcing him to open his mouth, which will give him wind, and be of great service. If there be any high wind stirring in the time of riding, the artful jockey will let his adversary lead, holding hard behind him, till he sees an opportunity of giving a loose; yet, in this case, he must keep so close behind, that the other horse may keep the wind from him; and that he, sitting low, may at once shelter himself under him, and assist the strength of the horse. If the wind happen to be in their back, the expert jockey is to keep directly behind the adversary, that he may have all the advantage of the wind to blow his horse along, as it were, and at the same time intercept it in regard to his adversary. 6720. When running on level smooth ground, the jockey is to beat his horse as much as the adversary will give him leave, because the horse is naturally more inclined to spend himself on this ground; on the con. 'trary, on deep earths, he may have more liberty, as he will there spare himself. 6721. In riding up hill the horse is always to be favoured, by bearing him hard, for fear of running him out of wind; but în running down hill, if the horse's feet and shoulders will bear it, and the rider dares venture his neck, he may have a full loose. If the horse have the heels of the rest, the jockey must always spare him a little, that he may have a reserve of strength to make a push at the last post. 6722. On the jockey's knowing the nature of the horse that is to run against him, a great deal depends; for by managing accordingly, great advantages are to be obtained: thus, if the opposite horse is of a hot and fiery disposition, the jockey is either to run just behind him, or cheek by joul with him, making a noises with the whip, and by that means forcing him on faster than his rider would have him, and consequently, spending him so much the sooner; or else keep him just before him, in such a slow gallop, that he may either overreach, or by treading on the heels of the fore-horse, endanger tumbling over. Whatever be the ground that the adversary's horse runs worst on, the cunning jockey is to ride the most violently over;" and by this means it will often happen, that in following he either stumbles or claps on the back sinews. The several corrections of the hand, the whip, and the spur, are also to be observed in the adversary, and in what manner he makes use of them: and when it is perceived by any of the symptoms of holding down the cars, or whisking the tail, or stretching out the nose like a pig, that the horse is almost blown, the business is to keep him on to this speed, and he will be soon thrown out or distanced. If the horse of the opponent looks dull, it is a sign his strength fails him; and if his flanks beat much, it is a sign that his wind begins to fail him, and his strength will soon do so too. 6723. The after-management of a horse who has run includes the treatment between the heats, and the treatment after the race is over. After every heat for a plate, there must be dry straw, and dry clothes, both linen and woollen, ready to rub him down all over, after taking off the sweat with what is called a sweat-knife; that is, a piece of an old sword-blade, or some such thing. After the horse has been well rubbed, he should be chafed all over with cloths wetted in common water, till the time of starting again. When it is certainly known that the horse is good at the bottom, and will stick at the mark, he should be rid every heat to the best of his performance; and the jockey is as much as possible to avoid riding at any particular horse, or staying for any, but to ride out the whole heat with the best speed he can, If on the contrary, he has a fiery horse to ride, and one that is hard to manage, hard-mouthed, and difficult to be held, he is to be started behind the rest of the horses with all imaginable coolness and gentleness; and when he begins to ride at some command, then the jockey is to put up to the other horses; and if they ride at their ease, and are hard held, they are to be drawn on faster; and if it be perceived that their wind begins to rake hot, and they want a sob, the business is to keep them up to that speed; and when they are all come within three quarters of a mile of the post, then is the time to push for it, and use the utmost speed in the creature's power. 6724. W7 en the race is over, the horse is immediately to be clothed up and rode home; and immediately on his coming into the stable, the following drink is to be given him: Beat up the yokes of three eggs, and put them into a pint and a half of sound ale, made warm; and let it be given with a horn. After this, he is to be rubbed well down, and the saddle-place rubbed over with warm water and vinegar, and the places where the spurs have touched, with the same; after this he should have a feed of rye-bread, then a good mash, and at some time after these as much hay and oats as he will eat. His legs, after this, should be bathed some time with a mixture of vinegar and water. SUBSECT. 2. Management and Working of the Hunter. A still 6725. The managing and working of the hunter includes his preparation for hunting, his condition, and his treatment while taking his regular day's work in the field, whether after buck, fox, or hare hounds. 6726. The preparation of the hunter must, like that of the race horse, be commenced by an estimate of his state and condition. If taken fresh from grass, it should be in due time: first, that he may be well prepared; and next, because the grass does not yield much nutriment in the heat of summer. better method is to continue to let him run out in the day and graze, having a shed to house himself from heat and rain. He is also to be fed and exercised, nearly as in the common training, for hunting condition. In this way he is sure to be free from cracks, hide-bound, or surfeit; and he will prove infinitely more hardy afterwards. It is even the practice with some of the best sportsmen to allow their horses to run out all the hunting season, unless the weather be very severe; when they are only stabled in a loose place. They are allowed as much corn as they can eat, and are found, if a little rougher in their coats, infinitely superior in hardihood, and exemption from the dangers of cold. 6727. A hunter taken from grass or in very low case should be treated as already fully detailed under condition. (6424) Great care must be taken that all the alterations in heat of stable, clothing, feeding, &c., are gradually brought about; by which means his flesh will harden gradually, and by using first walking exercise, and increasing it as he advances in flesh and strength, his wind also will become excellent. 6728. In the physicking of hunters, particularly when they are low in flesh, much caution is requisite that it be not over-done. It is the practice with some, and by no means a bad one, to give no physic; but to give more time in the preparation. Others, again, give mild grass physic, which is an excellent plan, when the weather is fine. (See Physicking, 6544.) 6729. The preparation of a hunter in full flesh and not from grass depends principally on regular exercise, and the best hard food; physicking him or not, according as he may be suspected to be foul, or as his wind may seem to want mending; but above all, whatever is done, should be done regularly; and his exercise should be rather long continued than violent. Oats with beans are the proper hard food for hunters, taking care that the beans do not constipate the bowels; which must be obviated by bran mixed with the other food, if such should be the case. Bread is not necessary, but for tender delicate horses; but every thing should be of the best. 6730. The day before a horse is to hunt it is common to treat him somewhat differently, but this is seldom necessary. It is evident he should be well fed, and that not late at night, that he may lie down early. Some feed in the morning, which others avoid; but when it is considered, as has been fully explained (6404), how ill a horse bears fasting, it will be at once seen, that if very early in the morning, as by five o'clock, he could be fed with a moderate quantity of corn wetted, it would tend to support him through the day. 6731. On the return of a horse from hunting, the care bestowed on him should be extreme; as on it depends the immediate recovery of his strength. If he have fasted very long, and particularly if he be disinclined to eat of himself, horn down a pint of ale, with two pints of thick gruel. No prudent sportsman will bring in a horse hot; but if unavoidable accidents prevent this caution, let the horse be again led out for a few minutes, hooded and clothed; but he must have fresh clothes when afterwards dressed. Encourage him to stale as quickly as possible, after which proceed to hand-rub him all over carefully, placing before him a little of the best hay well sprinkled with water. If he refuse this, offer him three quarts of very clean chilled water. When perfectly cleaned, let his feet be carefully examined, that stubs have not pierced them, or that his shoes have not been forced awry by over-reaching, or by the suction of clayey ground; or that thorns be not lodged in his knees, hocks, and sinews. After all these matters have been well attended to, remove him from his stall to a loose box, well bedded up. A loose box is invaluable to a hunter; it gives room for stirring to prevent the swelling of the legs; and is better than bandaging when it can be avoided, which gives a disinclination to lie down. If the horse be off his food the next day, give him a cordial ball (Vet. Pharm, 6568.) and a malt mash, and afterwards a few cut carrots, which will assist to bring him round more speedily. SUBSECT. 3. Working and Management of Riding Horses. 6732. The working and managing of hackney or riding horses include what is required for them as pleasure horses for ordinary airings; and what they require when used for purposes of travelling or long journeyings. It embraces also their stable management in general, with the proper care of horse and stable appointments: all which are usually entrusted to a servant, popularly called a groom, whose quali fications should be, moderate size, light weight, activity and courage, joined with extreme mildness and good temper; and above all, a natural love of horses, by which every thing required is done as a pleasure for the animal he loves, and not as a task for those he is indifferent to. 6733. The hackney for gentlemen's airings should be in high condition, because a fine coat is usually thought requisite; and here the groom ought to be diligent that he may keep up this condition by regularity and dressing, more than by heat, clothing, and cordials. Whenever his master does not use his horse, he must not fail to exercise him but principally by walking) to keep up his condition, and to keep down useless flesh and swellings of the heels. The horse appointments are to be peculiarly bright and clean. The bridle should be billetted and buckled, that the bits may be removed to clean them without soiling the leather, which cleaning ought not to be done with rough materials, but fine powder and polishing. On the return from exercise, they should be wiped dry and then oiled. Two pair of girths should be used, that a clean pair may always be ready, and the same if saddle cloths are used. 6734. The preparation for, and the care of a horse on, a journey involve many particulars which should not escape the eye of the master. The first is, Is the horse in hard travelling condition? Next, Do his appointments all fit, and are they in proper order? The bridle for journeying should always be a double curbed one. The snaffle can be ridden with, certainly; but the snaffle cannot do the work of the curb, in staying a horse, in saving him from the ground under stumbling or fatigue, or throwing him on his haunches, or in lightening his mouth. The bridle should not be new, but one to which the horse is accustomed. It is of still more consequence that the saddle be one that the horse has worn before, and that fits him thoroughly. The girths should also be of the best materials to prevent accidents; and if the saddle be liable to come forward, however objectionable the appearance, a crupper had better be used. days before a long journey is attempted, if the shoes are not in order, shoe the horse; but by no means let it be done as you set off, otherwise having proceeded on the journey a few miles, you find that one foot is pricked, and lameness ensues; or, if this be not the case, one or more shoes pinch, or do not settle to the feet; all which cannot be so well altered as by your own smith. Some 6735. It is always best to begin a long journey by short stages, which accustoms the horse to continued exertion. This is the more particularly necessary if he have not been accustomed to travel thus, or if he be not in the best condition. The distance a horse can perform with ease depends greatly on circumstances. Light carcassed horses, very young ones, and such as are low in flesh, require often baiting, particularly in hot weather; horses in full condition, above their work, and well carcassed, and such as are from seven to ten or twelve years old, are better when ridden a stage of fifteen or twenty miles, with a proportionate length of baiting time afterwards, than when baited often, with short stoppages: the state of the weather should also be considered; when it is very hot the stages should be necessarily shorter. 6736. To a proper consideration of the baiting times on a journey, the physiology of digestion should be studied. (6400.) Fatigue weakens the stomach; when we ourselves are tired, we seldom have much inclination to eat, and fatigue also prevents activity in the digestive powers. To allay these consequences, ride the horse gently the last two or three miles. If a handful of grass can be got at the road-side, it will wonderfully refresh your horse, and not delay you three minutes. In hot weather, let the horse have two or three go-downs (gulps), but not more, of water occasionally as you pass a pond; this tends to prevent excessive fatigue. Occasionally walk yourself up-hill, which greatly relieves him, and at such time remove the saddle, by shifting which, only half an inch, you greatly relieve him; and during this time, perhaps, he may stale, which also is very refreshing to him. It may be as well, in a flinty country, to take this opportunity of examining that no stones are got into the feet likewise. 6737. When a horse is brought into an inn from his journey, if he be very hot, first let him be allowed time to stale; let his saddle be taken off, and with a sweat knife draw the perspiration away; then, with a rug thrown over him, let him be led out and walked in some sheltered place till cool, by which means he will not afterwards break out into a secondary and hurtful sweat: but by no means let an idle ostler hang him to dry without the stable. Being now dried, remove him to the stable, where let some good hay, sprinkled with water, be placed before him: if very thirsty, give three or four quarts of water now, and the remainder in half an hour, and then let him be thoroughly dressed, hand-rubbed, foot-picked, and foot-washed; but by no means let him be ridden into water; or, if this practice is customary, and cannot be avoided, let it be not higher than the knees, and afterwards insist on the legs being rubbed perfectly dry; but good hand-rubbing and light sponging is better than washing. Having thus made him comfortable, proceed to feed him with corn and beans according as he is used. 6738. To feed a horse when very hard ridden, or if weakly and tender, it is often found useful to give bread, or bread with ale: if this be also refused, horn down oatmeal and ale, or gruel and ale. It is of the utmost consequence if the journey is to be of several days' continuance, or if it is to consist of a great distance in one or two days, that the baitings are sufficiently long to allow the horse to digest his food: digestion does not begin in less than an hour, and is not completed in less than three; consequently any bait that is less than two hours fails of its object; and such a horse rather travels on his former strength than on his renewed strength, and therefore it cannot continue. After a horse is fed he will sometimes lie down; by all means encourage this, and if he is used to do it, get him a retired corner stall for the purpose. 6739. The night baiting of a journeying horse should embrace all the foregoing particulars, with the addition of foot stopping; and care that his stable be of the usual temperature to that to which he is ac customed; and that no wind or rain can come to him. Give him now a full supply of water: if he has been at all exposed to cold, mash him, or if his dung be dried by heat, do the same; otherwise, let a good proportion of oats and beans be his supper, with hay, not to blow on half the night, but enough only to afford nutriment. 6740. When returned home from a journey, if it has been a severe one, let the horse have his fore shoes taken off, and, if possible, remove him to a loose box, with plenty of litter; but if the stones be rough, or the pavement be uneven, put on tips, or merely loosen the nails of those shoes he has on; keep the feet continually moist by a wet cloth, and stop them at night if the shoes be left on; mash him regu. larly, and if very much fatigued, or reduced, let him have malt or carrots, and if possible, turn him out an hour or two in the middle of the day to graze: bleeding or physicking are unnecessary, unless the horse shows signs of fear. If the legs be inclined to swell, bathe them with vinegar and chamberlye, and bandage them up during the day, but not at night, and the horse will soon recover to his former state. SUBSECT. 4. Horses in Curricles and Coaches. 6741. In working and managing horses in curricles, two-wheeled chaises, and similar cases, great feeling and nicety is required, not to overload or overdrive the animal; to see that the weight is duly proportioned between the wheels and horse's back, and that the harness does not pinch; but no directions on this head can be of much use, unless the driver be a humane and considerate person, and one who sets a just value on the services of the noble animal committed to him. In Russia, the drivers of two-wheeled carriages, as droscheys, sledges, and others, corresponding to our gigs and curricles, have a barbarous custom of teaching the horses to turn round their heads, the one to the left, and the other to the right (fig. 850.), the sight of which is very offensive to a stranger. 6742. In working and managing coach horses, the same attention to grooming in all its departments is required as for saddle horses. Coach horses should never be brought into full work before they are five years old: when well fed on hard food, they may be worked at an average of thirty miles a day at twice. In general they should not be longer than five or six hours in the yoke at a time. Their principal meals should be in the morning and after their work is over for the day, as the action of trotting fast materially impedes digestion. SUBSECT. 5. Working of Cart, Waggon, and Farm Horses. 6743. In working and managing cart and waggon horses, a similar attention is requisite as for coach horses, though perhaps in a somewhat less degree, the animal being hardier. 6744 The working and managing of farm horses includes the age at which they are put to work, the quantity of work they should perform, and their feeding and general management. 6745. The age at which horses are put to full work, in the labours of a farm, is usually when four or five years old, according to the nature of the soil, and the numbers of the team; but they are always understood to be able to pay for their maintenance after they are three years old, by occasional work in ploughing and harrowing. Brown thinks it probable they might be put to work at four years old, were the same attention paid to their breeding and rearing that is paid to cattle and sheep. 6746. The work which a farm horse caught to perform is evidently a question of circumstances, which does not admit of any precise solution: a two-horse plough may, on an average, work about an English acre a day throughout the year; and, in general, according to the nature of the soil, and the labour that has been previously bestowed on it, a pair of horses, in ploughing, may travel daily from ten to fifteen miles, overcoming a degree of resistance equal to from four to ten hundred weight. On a well made road, the same horses will draw about a ton in a two-wheeled cart for twenty or twenty-five miles every day; and one of the better sort, in the slow movement of the carrier or waggoner, commonly draws this weight by himself on the best turnpike roads. In some places horses are in the yoke, when the length of the day permits, nine hours, and in others ten hours a day; but for three or four months in winter, only from five to eight hours. In the former season they are allowed to feed and rest two hours from mid-day, and in the latter they have a little corn on the field, when working as long as there is day light, but none if they work only five or six hours. (Sup. Enc. Brit. art. Agr.) 6747. The feeding of farm horses is a subject of great agricultural importance, and has excited consider. able discussion among speculative agriculturists, who have generally urged the great expenses attending it as an argument against horses, in favour of oxen. Others, without preferring oxen to horses, have, instead of corn and hay, proposed to feed them on roots, leaves, whins, and even haws from the hedges. The latter have been given in large quantities by West of Hampshire, and, it is said (Complete Farmer, art. Team), were found to answer. That horses as well as men may live on very inferior food is evident; but that either will be able to perform their work under such treatment, as well as if they were properly nourished, is contrary to reason and experience. It is observed by the judicious writer so often quoted, that horses can never perform their labour, according to the present courses of husbandry, on carrots, turnips, potatoes, or other roots alone, or as their chief food. They will work and thrive on such food; but they will work as much more, and thrive as much better, with oats or beans in addition, as fully to repay the difference in expense. One of the three meals a day, which farm horses usually receive, may consist of roots; and a few of them, every twenty-four hours, are highly conducive to the health of the animals: but we have never had occasion to see any horse work regularly throughout the year, in the way they are usually worked in the best cultivated districts, without an allowance of at least an English peck of oats, or mixed oats and beans, daily, less or more at particular periods, but rather more than this quantity for at least nine months in the year. 6748. Brown does not approve of giving much grain to young horses, thinking it expensive, and not so conducive to their health as when they are supported on green food. In the winter and spring months, a few turnips are eminently beneficial to young horses, by keeping their blood in good order, swelling their bone, and hastening their growth. A plentiful supply of grass in summer ought always to be allowed, as their condition through the winter depends greatly upon that circumstance. It is an object deserving of attention, that flesh once gained ought never to be lost, but that every animal whatever should be kept in a progressive state of improvement, and not suffered to take a retrograde course, which afterwards must be made up by extra feeding, or a loss be sustained, in a direct proportion to the degree of retrogradation that has actually occurred. 6749. The leanness of a farmer's working cattle, and their reluctant movements, clearly mark his unprosperous condition. There are particular operations, indeed, such as turnip-sowing, seeding, fallows, harvest-work, &c., which require to be executed with so great despatch in our variable climate, that un usual exertions are often indispensable. At these times, it is hardly possible, by the richest food and the most careful treatment, to prevent the animals from losing flesh, sometimes even when their spirit and vigour are not perceptibly impaired. Such labours, however, do not continue long, and should always be followed by a corresponding period of indulgence. It is particularly dangerous and unprofitable to begin the spring labour with horses worn down by bad treatment during winter. (Sup. Enc. Brit. art. Agr.) 6750. Donaldson observes, that the coarse garbage with which farm horses are commonly stuffed, profitably or otherwise, is the real cause of the frequent occurrence among them of blindness, grease, and colic; more particularly the last, which, with care, might be prevented from happening so frequently. The remedy lies in physic, once or twice a year; either the regular aloetic dose, or salts given in pails of warm water, or sulphur and cream of tartar, one third of the latter mixed in the corn. All horses kept in the stable become, more or less, internally loaded, and it is an error to suppose cart-horses are not equally benefited with others by purging physic. 6751. The cleaning and dressing of farm horses was formerly very little attended to; but at present its importance to the health of the animal is better understood. Donaldson recommends that the heels, legs, bend of the knee, and hock, the twist under the flanks; in short, all parts out of sight, of cart horses, whilst standing in the house, should be kept perfectly free from dirt and scurf, and the skin supple; the parts more in sight will take care of themselves. In a deep country, it is much the better practice, notwithstanding the prejudice to the contrary, to trim their legs coach-horse fashion. It is now well understood, the editor of The Farmer's Magazine observes, that the liberal use of the brush and the currycomb twice a day; frequent but moderate meals, consisting of a due proportion of succulent joined to more solid food; abundance of fresh litter, and great attention to method and cleanliness, are as indispensable in the stable of a farmer (as far as is consistent with a just regard to economy) as they have always been held to be in the treatment of horses kept for pleasure. Good dressing, with all well informed and attentive men, is considered to be no less necessary to the thriving of the horses than good feeding; according to a cominon expression, it is equal to half their food. 672. The general management of farm horses in the improved districts of the north may be presented as a good example. There, for about four months in summer, horses are fed on pastures; or on clover and rye-grass, and tares cut green, and brought home to the stable or fold-yard; the latter method being by far the most economical and advantageous. For the other eight months, they are kept on the straw of oats, beans, and peas, and on clover and rye-grass hay. As soon as the grass fails towards the end of autumn, they have hay for a few weeks, and when the days become so short as to allow of no more than from six to eight hours' work, they are very generally fed with different kinds of straw, according to the circumstances of the farm; in the month of March they are again put to hay till the grass is ready for being cut. Throughout all the year they are allowed more or less corn, when constantly worked; and during the time they are on dry fodder, particularly when on straw, they have potatoes, yams, or Swedish turnips, once a day, sometimes boiled barley, and, in a few instances, carrots. A portion of some of these roots is of great importance to the health of horses, when succulent herbage is first exchanged for hay at the end of autumn; and it is no less so towards the latter end of spring, when hay has become sapless, and the labour is usually severe. At these two periods, therefore, it is the practice of all careful managers to give an ample allowance of some of these roots, even though they should be withheld for a few weeks during the intermediate period. 6753. The quantity of these different articles of food must depend on the size of the horses, and the labour they perform; and the value upon the prices of different seasons, and, in every season, on the situation of the farm with respect to markets, particularly for hay and roots, which bring a very different price near large towns, and at a few miles distant. It is for these reasons that the yearly expense of a horse's maintenance has been estimated at almost every sum, from 157. to 407. But it is only necessary to attend to the expense of feeding horses that are capable of performing the labour required of them, under the most correct and spirited management. Such horses are fed with oats, sometimes with beans, three times a day, for about eight months; and twice a day for the other four, when at grass; and, at the rate of eight feeds per bushel, each horse will eat fifteen quarters of oats, or twenty bolls Linlithgow measure in the year. When on hay, he will require about one stone of twenty-two pounds avoirdupoise daily, and five pounds more if he does not get roots. One English acre of clover and rye-grass, and tares, may be necessary for four months' soiling; and a quarter of an acre of potatoes, yams, or Swedish turnips, during the eight months he is fed with hay or straw. The use of these roots may admit of a small diminution of the quantity of corn in the winter months, or a part of it may be, as it almost always is, of an inferior quality. 6754. The expense of feeding a horse throughout the year may therefore be estimated, in regard to quantity, as follows: Oats, fifteen quarters. Soiling, one acre of clover and rye-gress, and tares. Straw for other four months, half the price of hay. 6755. The extent of land required for a horse's maintenance, supposing the soil to be of a medium quality, may be about five acres; that is, for oats three acres, soiling one, and one more for hay and roots. On rich soils four acres will be sufficient; but on poor soils, and wherever horses are kept at pasture, the produce of six acres and a half, or seven acres, will be consumed by one of them, when worked in the manner already mentioned. The straw of about two acres must be allowed for fodder and litter, the last of which has not been stated above; because, at a distance from towns, what is allowed for litter must, at any rate, be converted into dung. If sixty acres, therefore, should be assumed as the average extent of land that may be kept in cultivation by two horses, according to the best courses of modern husbandry, the produce of ten acres of this will be required for their maintenance; or, a horse consumes the produce of one acre out of every six which he cultivates, according to a four or six years' course, and something more than one acre out of every five which he ploughs annually. (General Report of Scotland, vol. iii, p. 192) CHAP. II. The Ass. Equus Asinus L. Ane, Fr.; Esel, Ger.; Asno, Span.; and Asino, Ital. 6756. The ass is a native of the mountainous deserts of Tartary, of Arabia, Persia, and other parts of the Asiatic continent; and at present is very generally domesticated throughout most civilised countries. The wild ass feeds chiefly on the most saline or bitter plants of the desert, as the kalis, atriplices, chenopodium, &c.; and also prefers the saltest and most brackish water to that which is fresh. Of this the hunters are aware, and usually station themselves near the ponds to which they resort to drink. Their manners greatly resemble those of the wild horse. They assemble in troops under the conduct of a leader, or sentinel; and are extremely shy and vigilant. They will, however, stop in the midst of their course, and even suffer the approach of man, and then dart off with the utmost rapidity. They have been at all times celebrated for their swiftTheir voice resembles that of the common ass, but is shriller. ness. 6757. The excellencies and defects of the common ass have amply engaged the lively pens of several descriptive writers on the history of animals; and of none with more happy effect than those of the eloquent Buffon, and the ingenious Abbé la Pluche. The ass, in his natural temper, is humble, patient, and quiet, and bears correction with firmness. He is extremely hardy, both with regard to the quantity and quality of his food, contenting himself with the most harsh and disagreeable herbs, which other animals will scarcely touch. In the choice of water he is, however, very nice; drinking only of that which is perfectly clear, and at brooks with which he is acquainted. He is very serviceable to many persons who are not able to buy or keep horses; especially where they live near heaths or commons, the barrenest of which will keep him; being contented with any kind of coarse herbage, such as dry leaves, stalks, thistles, briers, chaff, and any sort of straw. He requires very little looking after, and sustains labour beyond most others. He is seldom or never sick; and endures hunger and thirst longer than most other kinds of animals. The ass may be made use of in husbandry to plough light lands, to carry burdens, to draw in mills, to fetch water, cut chaff, or any other similar purposes. The female (fig. 851.) is also useful in many cases for her milk, which is excellent; and she might be of more advantage to the farmer if used, as in foreign countries, for the breeding of mules. The skin of the ass is extremely hard, and very elastic, and is used for various purposes; such as to cover drums, make shoes, or parchment. It is of the skin of this animal that the Orientals make the fagri, or, as we call it, shagreen. The milk of the ass is the lightest of all milks, and is recommended by medical men to persons of delicate stomachs; the flesh, and the hair of the tail and mane, are used as those of the horse. 6758. The ass attains his full growth in three or four years, and may then be put to work. Like the horse, he will live to 25 or 30 years: it is said the female lives longer than the male; but, perhaps, this happens from their being often pregnant, and at those times having some care taken of them, instead of which the males are constantly worn out with fatigue and blows. They sleep less than the horse, and do not lie down to sleep, except when they are exceedingly tired. The male ass also lasts much longer than the stallion; the older he is, the more ardent he appears; and, in general, the health of this animal is much better than that of the horse; he is less delicate, and not nearly so subject to maladies. Ophthal mia, which may be reckoned among the indigenæ of the cultivated horse, is almost unknown to the ass. Contraction of the feet also is very seldom observed in him. 6759. The different breeds or races of the ass are much less known than those of the horse; because in this country they have not been taken the same care of, or followed with the same attention. Travellers inform us that there are two sorts of asses in Persia; one of which, being slow and heavy, is used for bur 852 dens; and the other is kept like horses for the saddle. The latter have smooth hair, carry their heads well, and are much quicker in their motion; but when they ride them they sit nearer the but tocks than when on horseback. They are dressed like horses, and like them are taught to amble; and they cleave their nostrils to give them more room for breathing. According to Dr. Russell, there are two sorts in Syria, one of which is like ours, and the other very large, with remarkably long ears; but both kinds are employed for the purpose of carrying burdens and sedan chairs. (fig. 852.) |