7682. The Aphides or plant lice, next to locusts, are the most universal devastators of the vegetable world: almost every plant has its peculiar species; their fecundity is so prodigious, that Reaumur has calculated that in five generations one Aphis may be the progenitor of 5,904,900,000 descendants; and it is supposed that in one year there may be twenty generations! Those which attack the different kinds of grain seldom multiply so fast as to be very injurious; but those peculiar to pulse increase rapidly, and take such possession, that the plants are greatly injured and frequently destroyed before the seeds

are matured.

7683. These insects are equally injurious in their winged (fig. 972.magnified) and in their larva or apterous state (m magnified); they are a favourite food of sparrows and other birds, who destroy numbers: they are likewise exposed to other deadly and cruel enemies; one of these is a small hymenopterous insect, which deposits its egg in the body; it is there hatched, and feeds upon the intestines; in a short time the Aphis swells, becoines hard, and, from being green, changes to a dark red colour. The artful destroyer within, when he finds his victim dying, eats a hole through its belly, and fastens the A'phis, by that part, to a leaf or twig. When the parasite has thus devoured the inside, and is ready to emerge as a perfect insect, he opens a passage for himself by cutting out a round hole in the side, leaving the piece, like a door on its hinges, adhering to the body (m). But the most inveterate and destructive foe to the plant-lice is the lady-bird or lady-cow (Coccinella L., fig. 974. a), which, in its larva state (b), feeds entirely upon these insects; and the havoc made among them may be conceived, from the myriads upon myriads of these pretty little creatures which are usually seen in years when the plant-louse abounds; every one, probably, destroying tens of thousands of A'phides before he becomes a beetle. On this account the lady-bird is the greatest friend to the gardener and farmer; and could there be any method devised of increasing these useful insects at will, our hot-houses, gardens, fields, and hop plantations,

974

would soon be cleared from the ravages of plant-lice. The larva of several bee-like flies (Serphus F., c) are no less useful in this respect. Their form very much resembles that of the leech, having no apparent head. Some species are green, with a white stripe down the middle; others brown, variegated with darker shades. They are always found upon those plants most infected by Aphides, upon which they solely depend for nourishment; hence they become most beneficial, and should on no account be destroyed. As palliative measures, the application of powdered quicklime may be resorted to; or the infected shoots may be topped off before the insects are greatly multiplied, repeating the same operation before the time that the winter stock of eggs are deposited. By the first pruning a very numerous present increase will be prevented; and by the second, the following year's breed may, in a great measure, be destroyed. (Phil. Trans. 41. p. 181.)

7684. The wire-worm is a name that has been given, without discrimination, to the larva or grubs of various insects, totally different from each other: hence it is, that much confusion and contradiction will be found respecting it in agricultural books. The true wire-worm is the grub of a small beetle (Elater ségetis Marsham), and it derives its name from its slender form and uncommon hardness. It lives in the larva state nearly five years; during which time it is supported by devouring the roots of wheat, rye, oats, and grass, which it attacks indiscriminately, and causes annually a large diminution of produce: it abounds chiefly in newly broken-up land, and is particularly destructive in gardens recently converted from pasture land. In the larva state it may be decoyed by offering it more tempting food; but no method has yet been devised for destroying the perfect insect.

7685. The grub is a general name for several larvæ of crane flies (Tipùlada), called by the country people long-legs, or gaffer long-legs.

7686. One of the most destructive among these insects to the roots of grass and grain is the Tipula oleracea. The larva is said, by some authors, merely to loosen the roots by burrowing among them; but others assert, that it likewise feeds upon the fibres. However this may be, the evil produced is evident; for in many parts of England it cuts off a large proportion of the wheat crops, especially if sown upon clover-lays. Reaumur informs us, that sometimes in France, particularly in marshy lands, the grass of whole districts has been so destroyed by it, as not to produce the food necessary for the sustenance of the cattle. No effectual remedy has yet been discovered for this evil; and Steckney observes, that the insect is not killed by lime, even when applied in much larger doses than usual.

7687. There are several other species of a large size, as the Tipula crocata (fig. 975. a), and Tipula rivòsa (c), which, in a less degree, are also injurious to such lands as are moist and humid.

7688. Another minute species is particularly destructive to corn, and is generally known as the wheat-fly (Tipula tritici, b): its history and economy has been ably investigated by Mr. Marsham and Mr. Kirby. The injury first appears in the ear, several of which, on being opened, will be found to contain an orange-coloured powder; in this are concealed very minute larvæ (), which, on being magnified (g), are seen to be thick at one end, extending and contracting themselves at pleasure,

and frequently jumping half an inch at one spring; they take their station in the longitudinal furrow of the grain, and by sucking its milky juice causes it to shrink up, and become what the farmers call pungled: the last sown wheat always uppears the most infected. In the beginning of June the perfect insect (b) may be seen in innumerable multitudes, flying in the evening in all directions over the corn-fields; but during the day not one is to be perceived. The female lays her eggs (de magnified) by means of a retractile tube, which encloses a very long and acute sting resembling a hair; but this can only be distinctly seen when the insect is magnified (4). The wheatfly would soon become a formidable enemy to mankind, were not its race exposed to an inveterate foe, scarcely larger than themselves; this is the Ichneumon Tipulse, the female of which carefully searches out the grubs of the wheat-fly, and deposits in each one of her eggs: these are hatched, and ultimately the larva devours the body which gave it life. One Ichneumon will thus cause the death of many dozens, and prevent the fu ture multiplication of thousands. The only palliative that has been recommended for stopping the progress of this insect has originated in Mr. Kirby; this consummate naturalist thinks much benefit would be derived by fumigating the corn with tobacco and sulphur, when the wind is in a favourable quarter: this must be done as soon as the ear begins to shoot from the leafy stalk. (Linn. Trans.)

SUBSECT. 5. Insects injurious to Food, Clothing, &c.

7689. The manufactured produce of our fields and gardens, whether as food or clothing, is still exposed to the ravages of other tribes of insects, which take up their residence in our dwellings, and on every thing about us. Fortunately, however, these domestic enemies are much less numerous and hurtful in this country than in the tropical regions of America, India, and Africa, where their devastation is almost incredible. Amongst the few that are indigenous, or that have been naturalised in Britain, the principal are the cock-roach, the house-cricket, and the bacon-grub.

7690. The cock-roach, called by some the black beetle (Blátta orientalis, fig. 976. c), was originally im

a

976

ported from India, but is now naturalised in every temperate part of Europe. Like most of its tribe, it shuns the light, both natural and artificial. In the London houses, particularly in the rooms on the ground-floor, it is very abundant, and indiscriminately devours bread, meat, flour, and even clothes. As soon as light appears they all scamper off as fast as they can, and vanish in an instant. It is said to be killed by devouring red wafers. The young are contained in a singular horny case (a), which is divided into a number of transverse partitions or chambers; it is rather flattened, and quite smooth except one side, which is toothed. The larva and pupa (b) are both without wings, and generally larger than the perfect insect (c).

7691. The house-cricket (Gryllus domésticus L.) is sometimes as abundant in farm-houses as the cock-roach is in those of London and other large towns: both insects devour every kind of food, and are often found drowned in pans of water, milk, and other fluids; it is said they will even attack stockings, or linen hung out to dry. They require great warmth, and are therefore mostly found in kitchens and bakehouses. Another species is peculiar to pastures, which, in conjunction with the male cricket, feeds only upon roots: both these, however, are too local in this country to be very extensively injurious.

7692. The bacon-grub (Derméstes lardàrius L.) is a great pest to the winter provisions of the farmer, devouring hams, bacon, and all sorts of dried meats. This is principally done when the insect is in its larva or grub state (fig. 970. f). When full fed it be comes a chrysalis (g), which ultimately changes into a small beetle (h) about a third of an inch long, of a dusky brown colour, with the upper half of the wing-cases whitish or ash-coloured, marked with black specks. The grub, from lying concealed in the meat, cannot be effectually removed; but by watching the time when the perfect insects appear, they may then be destroyed, and a recurrence of the evil in great measure prevented.

7693. Woollen clothing of every description, furs, &c. are liable to be devoured by the larvæ or caterpillars of no less than five distinct species of small moths. Most of these enclose themselves in little tubular cases of a silky texture, and are so well disguised externally by fragments of the stuff they feed upon as often to escape immediate observation. The receipts for preventing these ravages are numerous, but few of them can be depended upon. As a preventive, pieces of Russia leather, or tobacco leaves, may be laid between the folds of garments (in drawers) which are not often used. If there is reason to fear the moths are in the house, these garments should be frequently opened, and aired by exposing them to the sun. When furs of any kind are laid by for the summer, they may either be sprinkled with snuff or camphor, and Russia leather or tobacco leaves put in the drawer or box. Should the moth actually have got into furs, the only way of checking the evil is to put them into an oven moderately heated, and by keeping them in this situation a quarter of an hour every grub will be effectually killed; the degree of heat may be ascertained, in the first instance, by putting in some common feathers, which should come out uninjured.

7694. The principal insects injurious to the agriculturist have now been enumerated: there are many others which feed upon cultivated vegetables and domestic stores, but in a less extensive degree. Let us not suppose, however, that these little animals have been created for our punishment or annoyance. We have but taken a view of one side of the picture; the other would show us innumerable benefits, either immediate or remote, which we derive from this race of beings. The silkworm, the honey-bee, and the cochineal insect must not be forgotten; and myriads of others are created, whose sole occupation during life appears to be that of devouring and keeping within due limits those tribes that are injurious and hurtful to man,

SUBSECT. 6. Operations for subduing Insects.

695. The operations for destroying insects, or counteracting their injurious effects, are various, and in most cases must be regulated according to the species. These we have already pointed out in treating upon the insects themselves, or of the particular plants upon which they feed. It only remains to offer such general rules as are more or less applicable to all destructive insects; these are of three kinds, preventives, palliatives, and efficient processes.

7696. The preventive operations are those of the best culture as relates to the choice of seed nor plant, soil, situation, treatment, and climate: the four first are under the control of man, and an attention to them will undoubtedly lessen the risk of injured crops; but as regards weather, neither his foresight nor care can avail any thing.

7697. The palliative operations are numerous; and such as are eminently successful may be considered as efficient; inasmuch as it rarely if ever happens that any insect can be exterminated, even from one district its numbers may be diminished, but the species will still remain, although in such small numbers that its operations may escape notice. Most insects will be injured, and in part destroyed, by artificial bad weather, such as excessive waterings, stormy application of water with a syringe, and violent wind produced by shaking the tree or plant: many will thus be bruised, and others that are shaken to the ground can be destroyed. Insects may be further injured by watering the plants upon which they feed, either with tobacco or lime-water, or by scattering upon the leaves powdered quick-lime, soot, ashes, barley awns, &c. The smell of tar is particularly offensive to all insects, and the effects produced by the fumes of tobacco, sulphur, urine, &c. are well known. Hot water may be applied with much advantage. Water heated to 120 or 130 degrees will not injure plants whose leaves are fully expanded, and it may be increased to 200 for such as are without leaves.

7698. Insects may be destroyed in a much more effectual manner by enticement, or placing in their way other food as a trap. The late noble and generous Sir Joseph Banks has the merit of having recommended and made known this most efficient method. It simply consists in cutting slices of potatoes or turnips, sticking them upon skewers, and then burying them near the seeds sown: the vermin will collect upon them during night, and by examining them every morning, vast numbers may be destroyed; this plan has been very advantageously tried with the wire-worm, and no doubt would be equally beneficial in clearing all crops that are attacked by under-ground feeders. Mr. Kirby states, "that it was very suc cessfully employed in 1813, by J. M. Rodwell, Esq. of Barham Hall, near Ipswich, one of the most skilful agriculturists in Suffolk, to preserve some of his wheat-fields from the ravages of a small grey slug, which threatened to demolish the plant. Having heard that turnips had been used with success to entice the slugs from wheat, he caused a sufficient quantity to dress eight acres to be got together; and then, the tops being divided and the apples sliced, he directed the pieces to be laid separately, dressing two stetches with them, and omitting two alternately, till the whole field of eight acres was gone over. On the fol

lowing morning he employed two women to examine and free from the slugs (which they did into a measure) the tops and slices; and when cleared, they were laid upon those stetches that had been omitted the day before. It was observed invariably, that in the stetches dressed with the turnips, no slugs were to be found upon the wheat, or crawling upon the land, though they abounded upon the turnips; while, on the undressed stetches, they were to be seen in great numbers both on the wheat and on the land. The quantity of slugs thus collected was near a bushel. Mr. Rodwell is persuaded that by this plan, he saved his wheat from essential injury. (Kirby and Spence, Int. to Entomology, i. p. 182. note.)

977

978

7699. The turnip net (fig. 977.) is an instrument invented by Mr. Paul of Starston in Norfolk. It is the most successful expedient that has yet been thought of for the capture and destruction of the little beetles called by farmers the black jack, and by hop-growers the flea. It consists of two pieces of stout wood, the ends of which, at one extremity, are fixed into a handle in a forked direction: the other ends are left thick and curved upwards, for the purpose of passing the instrument smoothly and easily over the surface of the ground: towards this end, the sticks are connected by a cross-bar formed by a thin iron rod, that may be taken on and off at pleasure; these three sides constitute the frame work for supporting a long and ample bag, made of strong glazed calico. The method of using it is by the operator shoving it before him on the ground, over the tops of the turnips or other plants; by this means the insects that are upon the leaves fall into the bag, which may be occasionally shaken during the process, so as to bring them to the bottom (which is made narrow) where they will remain. Vast quantities of insects, which from their smallness and agility defy hand-picking, will be thus captured. The turnip net may be made either large or small; perhaps two feet and a half for the side sticks is the best length; it being obvious that the wider they are apart, the greater space will be brushed at once,

7700. The lime-duster (fig. 978.) is a recent invention by Mr. Samuel Curtis of Glazenwood, near Coggeshall, Essex, and has been used by him with great success in throwing pulverised quick-lime over apple trees infected by caterpillars and other insects. His orchard, containing many thousand fruit trees, and occupying fifty acres, had been for many years completely divested of most of their foliage and young fruit in the spring months. Washing the stems and branches with lime and water (as might have been expected) was found ineffectual for the destruction of insects which fed only on the young buds and leaves. The instrument in question consists of a canister twelve inches long, seven inches wide at its broadest, and four inches on its narrowest part; the handle (a) is five inches and a half long. The top of the handle is fitted with a cap (b), which is put on when the lime is to be thrown on low trees; but when high trees are to be operated upon, the cap is removed, and a pole of sufficient length to reach the height required is inserted into the handle. Quicklime pulverised (and often sifted through a fine sieve) is put into the canister, and shaken over the young foliage just as it was expanding. The time for doing this is in the dew of the morning, or whenever the leaves are damp; and if there should be a gentle breeze, sufficient to carry the dust obliquely through the head of each tree, it is the more quickly performed. Under favourable circumstances of this nature, Mr. Curtis says, "I found that three men, provided with the powder in a large box on a light wheelbarrow, could dress from two to three thousand trees in a day: when the wind changed, I had the trees dressed on the other side. Although used ever so freely, no person need fear any injury, from the caustic quality of the lime, on the most delicate and fresh expanded foliage; it is only prejudicial to insects of all kinds, and to dead vegetable matter." (Hort. Trans. vol. vi. p. 2 page 124) We know not whether the lime-duster has ever been tried upon hop plantations infected by the green fly or plant louse; but it appears to us equally well adapted to effect a great destruction among those insects.

7701. Grain of all descriptions that is infected by weevils, or by the grubs of other insects, should be spread in the sun, and frequently turned: the warmth will bring the animals out of the grain, and considerable numbers may be destroyed. It has been said that they may be kept away by strewing boughs of elder or branches of henbane among the grain, but this wants confirmation.

7702. Hand-picking, independent of the foregoing methods, is too tedious and too ineffectual for general adoption in large crops, but is probably the best that can be resorted to in gardens or small enclosures. In this way the different esculent vegetables, and the common and low kinds of fruit trees, as currants, gooseberries, &c. may be cleared of a vast number of caterpillars.

7703. Catching the perfect insect is undoubtedly the most certain plan for preventing a return of the same injury the following year, for the death of one female will cut off a generation of a hundred larvæ; but from the difficulty that attends an extensive adoption of this plan, it is not likely to be much attended to.

SECT. IV. Worm-like Animals injurious to Agriculture.

7704. Of worms (Vérmes L.) generally so called, there are but few which may be considered as injurious to agriculture. The principal of these are the various species of slug (Arion F., Limax L.) and the large and small snails (Hèlix hortensis and nemoràlis L.), mostly found in garden plantations. The earth or dew worm (Lumbricus terrestris L.), unless existing in great numbers on a single spot, cannot be ranked among injurious animals, notwithstanding the prejudices of farmers and gardeners against them. With. out worms the earth would soon become hard, cold, incapable of receiving moisture, or of giving nourishment to roots: they are, in fact, the great promoters of vegetation, by boring, perforating, and loosening the soil beneath, and by manuring it above with their excrement, which is thrown up into lumps called worm casts. The wire-worm does not belong to this tribe, but is the larva of a small beetle already noticed.

7705. Worms of the slug kind are without shells. There are several species inhabiting Britain, all of which subsist on leaves, roots, and vegetables. The most common is the Limax agrestis (fig. 979. a), of which there are several varieties injurious to the agriculturist and gardener; they devour the young shoots of turnips, wheat, and indeed all kinds of grain, frequently to a ruinous extent: their eggs (b) are small, round, of a semipellucid whiteness, and are deposited in the earth. The methods of destroying or eradicating the perfect animal have been already described.

7706. The shell slug (Testacéllus mángi F., c) is a native of Teneriffe, and has likewise been found in several parts of France and Spain; it has recently been discovered in some gardens near Bristol, by Mr. Miller, of that city. It is a highly curious animal, remarkable for feeding upon earth worms; and may, therefore, be beneficially introduced into such gardens as are overstocked by that otherwise

useful animal. It is readily distinguished from all other slugs in this country by having a thin oval shell

C

79

(d) affixed to the hinder part of its body. Slugs in general are easily enticed by cabbage leaves, scattered near such garden vegetables as they appear to injure most.

7707. Snails, are slugs covered by a shell. The two species most preju. dicial to cultivated vegetables, are the garden snail (Helix aspérsa Gm.), and the variegated snail (Hèlix nemoralis, e): both these seek the same description of food, and are equally injurious, as slugs; and, like them, may be enticed by cabbage leaves and other juicy vegetable refuse.

PART IV.

STATISTICS OF BRITISH AGRICULTURE.

7708. AFTER having considered agriculture as to its history, as to the scientific principles on which it is founded, and the application of these principles to the different branches of practice; it remains only to take a statistical survey and estimate of its present state and future progress in the British isles.

BOOK I.

OF THE PRESENT STATE OF AGRICULTURE IN THE BRITISH ISLES.

7709. The present state of British Agriculture, as to knowledge and the details of practice, has been the subject of the former PARTS of this work: but its importance in the general economy of society, can only be learned by a view of the manner in which it is actually carried on; the modifications to which it has given rise in the pursuits of those who have embraced the art as a source of livelihood; of the kinds of farms cultivated by different orders of agriculturists; of the principal practices of each of the different counties of Britain and Ireland as to agriculture; of the British authors who have written on the subject; and of the professional police and public laws relative to husbandmen and agriculture.

CHAP. I.

Different Descriptions of Men engaged in the Practice or Pursuit of Agriculture. 7710. Agriculturists may be arranged as operators, or serving agriculturists; dealers, or commercial agriculturists; counsellors; professors, or artists; and patrons.

SECT. I. Operators, or serving Agriculturists.

7711. The lowest grade in the scale of this class is farm labourers, who may be either men, women, or children; and either local residents, periodical visitants for particular labours, as hay-making, reaping, &c., or itinerant workmen for taking jobs, as ditching, stocking, &c. None of this class of operators are supposed to have received any other professional instruction than what they have derived casually, or from observing others.

7712. Apprentices are little known in agriculture; but they occur sometimes, either as the children of other operators, whose parents bind them a certain number of years, during which they are to work for their food and clothes, and 51. or 101. to be received at the end of the term according to conduct; or sons of richer persons, who pay a premium for the instruction to be received, and for boarding with the master. The former class of apprentices generally look forward to being ploughmen, shepherds, head ploughmen, or inferior bailiffs; the latter to being first bailiffs, stewards of estates, or to farming on their own account. Parish boys are sometimes bound apprentices of the first class, and various noblemen's sons from almost every kingdom of Europe have been included in the second.

7713. The term journeyman is as little known in agriculture as apprentice. Those who answer to that term are the professional operators of a farm, such as ploughmen, cattle herds, shepherds, and hedgers. These rank decidedly above labourers of all-work. A ploughman may not unaptly be considered as of the rank of an apprentice till he can fear or set out ridges, and after he can do this as of the rank of journey. man till he can stack and sow. He may then be considered as a master of his art, entitled to work the best pair of horses, and if twenty-five or thirty years of age, to enter into the marriage state.

7714. A hedger is a professional operator, who may be considered as ranking with a master ploughman. His business is to plant, clean, prune, cut, lay, plash, and repair hedges; prune forest and orchard trees, and effect other operations with ligneous plants on the farm. In Berwickshire hedgers are generally very intelligent men, and keep the fences on the farms in the border counties in excellent order, and the hedgerow trees handsomely pruned.

7715. A woodman is an operator eraployed to prune trees and manage hedges, and is of the same rank and requires the same kind and degree of professional knowledge as the hedger. Generally he is more conversant with barking trees for the tanners, converting copsewood and measuring timber, than the other, being more engaged with woods than hedges.

7716. A head ploughman, on small farms, is to be considered as the bailiff in the absence of the master. He works the best pair of horses, and assists the master in stacking and sowing. On larger farms, where a regular bailiff is kept, there is also a head ploughman, who acts as substitute for the bailiff in his tem porary absence, as far as operatives and overlooking operations; but not in money matters or contracts. 7717. A farm bailiffis, or should be, a person of tolerable education, who understands accounts, mea. suring of work, land, and timber, and can draw up agreements for hiring servants. He should have practised every part of farming himself, from tending poultry, swine, and sheep, to stacking and sowing. When employed by a gentleman, or one who has no skill in farming, he should not be under twenty-five years of age; but a farmer's bailiff need not exceed twenty-one years, is to be considered as a sort of apprentice, and will be directed in all leading matters by his master.

7718. A bailiff and gardener, or gardener and grieve, as they are called in some places, is a sort of hybrid upper servant, who seldom excels either as a farmer or a gardener, and is only fit for situations of limited extent, and an indifferent style of performance.

7719. The forester or head woodman is to the woods of an estate what the bailiff is to the farm lands in hand. He directs and superintends the woodmen and their labourers, in planting, rearing, and pruning plantations, and in the felling of timber or copse, barking, charcoal making, and in short every thing con. nected with timber, trees, copses, or hedges.

7720. The land steward (Factor, Scotch; Facteur, Fr.; Factor, Ger. ; and Fattore, Ital.) is to a whole estate what a bailiff is to the demesne or a particular farm. His business is to control the managers of the lands in hand, as the forester, gardener, bailiff, &c.; to see that farmers fulfil the covenants of their leases; to attend to repairs, roads, public and parochial matters in behalf of the landlord; and generally to receive

rents.

7721. Under stewards, or steward's bailiffs, as they are called, are assistants to the main steward, or have the care of detached estates, containing a few farms or woods.

7722. Demesne stewards are such as are kept chiefly for regulating the affairs of demesne lands; that is, lands surrounding the mansion in hand, or of an estate of small size, where all the lands are in hand, but where an extensive establishment of horses, servants, a large garden, &c. are kept up. Here the steward performs the duties of bailiff, forester, and in some degree of house-steward, by his connection with the stables and game-keeper, and other domestic rural matters.

7723. Court farmer (Hoffmeyer, Ger.; Grangero de la corte, Span.; Agronome de la cour, Fr.; and Fattore della corte, Ital.), may be considered the highest step, the summum bonum of agricultural ser. vitude. The late Ramsay Robinson, Esq. was bailiff to Geo. III.; his sister, Miss Robinson, was royal dairy-woman; and Sir Joseph Banks, royal shepherd.

SECT. II. Commercial Agriculturists.

7724. The lowest grade here is the jobbing farmer, who keeps a team, a cart, plough, pair of harrows, and probably one or two hand implements. He hires himself by the day, week, or by the acre, to plough, sow, or labour, the small spots of ground of tradesmen who keep a cow but no labouring stock; or to assist farmers who are behind with their labours. The contractors for executing works devised by the agricul tural engineer (7754), though widely separated in point of wealth from the common jobber, yet belong to the same species; both agree in selling their labour and skill in a raw state, not when manufactured into produce like the other commercial agriculturists.

7725. Itinerant agriculturists are of two kinds: such as take grounds for the culture of one or two crops of particular sorts of plants, as woad, flax, &c. (5963.); and such as travel with a plough and pair, &c. to teach that operation to young farmers or their servants, a practice at one time carried on in Ireland under the patronage of the Dublin Society.

7726. Cottage farmers are such as possess a cottage and an acre or two of land, which they may either keep in aration or pasture; disposing of the corn, green crops, or dairy produce in various ways, according to local circumstances.

7727. Poultry farmers, such as devote themselves chiefly to the breeding, rearing, and fattening of poultry, and the growing of feathers and quills.

7728. Garden farmers are such as possess lands near large towns or sea-ports; and grow the commoner garden vegetables, as peas, onions, cabbages, &c. for the market, or herbs for the distillers and druggists. 7729. Sced farmers. Small farmers who devote themselves chiefly to the growing of garden seeds for the London seedsmen, and for the distillery. They are to be found only in a few counties in the central and southern districts of England, and chiefly in Kent and Essex. (See Encyc. of Gard. 2d edit. 7390.) 7730. Orchard farmers are such as farm grass or arable orchards, sometimes joined to hop lands and garden farms; often with a small dairy; with rearing of poultry, rabbits, &c., and sometimes with the breeding and training of dogs; the latter a very lucrative branch when well understood.

7731. Hop farmers, such as make hops a principal article of cultivation, to which are sometimes joined garden and orchard farming.

7732. Milk or cow farmers, such as keep cows for selling their milk in an unmanufactured state. These farmers are of course limited to populous neighbourhoods. Cow-keepers differ from cow-farmers, in having their establishments in towns, and in purchasing, not growing, their cow provender.

7733. Dairy farmers, such as keep cows and manufacture their milk into butter or cheese. These are most common in rich moist flat districts, as Cheshire, part of Gloucestershire, Leicestershire, &c.

7734. Graziers, farmers whose chief business consists in buying, feeding, and selling cattle and sheep. Their farms are chiefly in old pasture, and they are more commonly feeders than breeders. The most extensive in England are in Leicestershire and Lincolnshire.

7735. Stock farmers, such as devote themselves to breeding and rearing different kinds of live stock, especially horses and cattle. They are most common in Yorkshire.

7156. Store farmers, breeders who devote themselves chiefly to the sheep and cattle families. They are common in the border counties, in Wales, and in the Highlands.

7737. Hay farmers are confined to a small district round London; where they grow chiefly natural or meadow hay for the London coach and saddle horses, and for cow-keepers.

7738. Corn-farmers, as opposed to hay, dairy, grazing, and breeding farmers, is a term employed to such as occupy lands more adapted for the plough than for pa turage, as arable clays and loams.