3260. The cultivator, grubber, scuffler, scarifiers, and such like implements (2650.), are used to lessen the number of ploughings in fallows or light free soils. Their operation differs from that of the plough in not reversing the surface, and therefore they can never, as some have proposed, become a substitute for that implement in all cases. Still the grubber is a valuable implement. William Lester, late of Northampton, who is said first to have invented an implement of this kind, declares himself confident that one man, a boy, and six horses, will move as much land in a day, and as effectually, as six ploughs; meaning land in a fallow state, that has been previously ploughed. We have elsewhere pointed out the mode of using this description of tillage implements (2650.), one great advantage of which is, that they may be used by the unskilful, and even by operators who cannot guide a plough. As soon as steam shall be employed as a moving power in this department of agriculture, implements of this kind, and especially Finlayson's harrow (2657.) and Wilkie's brake (2656.), will come into very general use.

3261. The operation of harrowing is intended both to drag out weeds and to cover the seeds when sown. It is obvious that implements of different sizes are not only necessary, but even that these implements should be worked in different ways, according to the strength and condition of the soil on which they are employed, and the nature of the work to be executed. When employed to reduce a strong obdurate soil, not more than two of the old or common sort should be yoked together, because they are apt to ride and tumble upon each other, and thus impede the work, and execute it imperfectly. It may also be remarked, that on rough soils harrows ought to be driven as fast as the horses can walk; because their effect is in direct proportion to the degree of velocity with which they are driven. In ordinary cases, and in every case where harrowing is meant for covering the seeds, and the common implement in use, three harrows are the best yoke, because they fill up the ground more effectually, and leave fewer vacancies, than when a smaller number is employed the improved forms, calculated to cover the breadth of two or more of the old harrows by one frame. (fig. 518.), are only calculated for flat ridges, or for working dry lands in which ridging is not requisite.

518

O

:

3262. The harrow-man's attention, at the seed process, should be constantly directed to prevent these implements from riding upon each other, and to keep them clear of every impediment, from stones, lumps of earth, or clods, and quickens or grass roots; for any of these prevent the implement from working

with perfection, and causes a mark or trail upon the surface, always unpleasing to the eye, and generally detrimental to the vegetation of the seed.

3263. Harrowing is usually given in different directions; first in length, then across, and finally in length, as at first. Careful agricultors study, in the finishing part of the process, to have the harrows drawn in a straight line, without suffering the horses to go in a zigzag manner, and are also attentive that the horses enter fairly upon the ridge, without making a curve at the outset. In some instances, an excess of harrowing has been found very prejudicial to the succeeding crop; but it is always necessary to give so much as to break the furrow, and level the surface, otherwise the operation is imperfectly performed.

3264. Horse-hoeing is the operation of stirring the ground between rows of vegetables, by means of implements of the hoe, coulter, or pronged kind, drawn by horses. Whoever can guide a plough, will find no difficulty in managing any implement used for stirring ground. The easiest kinds are those which have few hoes, or coulters, or shares, and a wheel in front; and the easiest circumstances, wide intervals between the rows, and a loose friable soil. Wherever soil is hard, rough, and rounded, as in the case of highraised ridges, there should not be more than three prongs or shares in the implement, because more than three points can never touch a curved surface, and be in one plane; and if not in one plane, they will never work steadily, equally, and agreeably.

3265. Turnip hoeing of every kind is accordingly exceedingly easy; but stirring the earth between rows of beans on a strong clay soil in a time of drought, is proportionally difficult, and sometimes, when the ground rises in large lumps, dangerous for the plants. In stirring the soil between rows of beans, cabbages, or other plants, on strong or loamy

soils, a small plough often answers better than any of the pronged or coultered implements, at least for the first and last operations of bean culture. Dr. Anderson, indeed, affirms with great truth, that nearly all the various operations of horse-hoeing may be executed by the common swing-plough, in an equally effectual manner as by any of the hoe-ploughs usually made use of.

3266. Drilling, or the deposition of seed in rows by means of a drill machine, is an operation that requires considerable care in the performance. The points that require particular attention are keeping the rows straight and at equal distances throughout their length, depositing the seed at a proper depth, and delivering the seed in proper quantity according to its kind and the nature of the soil. For these purposes the ground must have been previously well prepared by ploughings and harrowings, except in the particular case of drilling beans with one furrow. This operation is generally performed in the course of ploughing, either by a person pushing forward a bean-drill barrow, or by attaching a hopper and wheel, with the necessary apparatus, to the plough itself. The mode of regulating the depth of the drill, and the quantity of seed delivered, must depend on the kind of drill used, and only requires attention in the holder. In drilling turnips the land is most generally made up into ridgelets twenty-seven or thirty inches centre from centre, by a single bout (go about), or return, of the common plough. The Northumberland machine, which sows two rows at once, is then drawn over them by one horse walking between the ridges without a driver, the holder at once performing that operation and keeping the machine steady on the tops of the drills. One of the two rollers of this machine smooths the tops of the ridges before the seed is deposited, and the other follows and compresses the soil and covers the seed.

3267. In drilling corn several rows are sown at once, and great care is requisite to keep the machine steady and in a straight line: for most soils two horses and a driver are required for this purpose; the driver aiding in filling the hopper with seed, &c.

3268. In all cases of drilling it must be recollected that the principal intention of the operation is to admit of horse-hoeing the crop afterwards; hence the necessity of straight rows and uniform distances; and hence also the advantage of burying the manure under the drill or row, that it may not be exposed to the air in after-working.

3269. Rolling is the operation of drawing a roller over the surface of the ground with the view of breaking down the clods, rendering it more compact, and bringing it even and level; or it may be limited to smoothing and consolidating the surface. It is practised both upon the tillage and grass lands, and is of much utility in both sorts of husbandry. In the former case it is made use of for the purpose of breaking down and reducing the cloddy and lumpy parts of the soil in preparing it for the reception of crops, and in rendering light soils more firm, even, and solid, after the seed is put in. It is likewise found beneficial to the young crops in the early spring, in various instances. In order to perform this operation in the most complete and effectual manner a roller of considerable weight is necessary; and in order as much as possible to prevent the ground from being injured by the feet of the animals that draw it, as may frequently be the case where they follow each other in the same track, it is the best practice to have them yoked double, as by that means there will be less treading on the same portion of surface. Where two horses are sufficient to execute the work, more should never be made use of; but if a third should be found necessary, it may be attached as a leader in the middle before the other two: a greater number of horses can seldom or never be of any material advantage in this sort of work. It is necessary to see that every part of the surface receives the due impression of the implement, and that the head lands are not injured by the turnings. On lands where the work is regularly performed, it will seldom be requisite to pass more than once in a place, but in other cases it may often be done more frequently with benefit, and in particular cases a more frequent repetition of the operation is absolutely requisite, in order to bring the ground into a proper state.

3270. In rolling grass lands it is necessary to attend in a particular manner to the season, as it cannot be performed with advantage either when the surface is in too dry or too moist a condition. In these cases the work of rolling may be advantageously performed at different seasons, as in the beginning of the autumn, and in the commencement of the year, or very early spring months; but the latter is the most common period. In the drier descriptions of land it may frequently be performed, in the most beneficial manner, after the land has been rendered a little soft by a moderate fall of rain; but in those of the contrary sort it may be necessary to wait till the superabundant moisture be so much dried up, as to admit the animals employed in drawing the machine without subjecting the surface of the ground to poaching or other injury, while the process is going on. The rolling of watered meadows, it has been remarked by Boswell, should be executed towards the latter end of February or beginning of the following month, after the land has been left in a dry state for a week or ten days. The work should be performed along the panes, going up one side of the trenches and down the other; and in the case of rolling the common hay lands, it is a good mode to proceed up one side of

the field and down the other, somewhat in a similar manner, as by that means the work may be the most completely executed.

3271. Horse-raking, or the collecting of the scattered straws of corn or hay crops by the rake, is an operation of little art or trouble in the execution. The proper implement being employed, it is generally drawn by one horse, conducted by a man, who walks behind, and, when the rake fills, lifts it up without stopping the horse, and always at the same place, so as to deposit the rakings in regular rows across the field. same mode is followed whether in raking hay, corn, stubble, or weeds from fallow od in best of boftime97 990 87 q grounds.

3272. Driving carts and wagons, thou s and waggons, though the easiest or all operations, is quently shamefully performed by servants.

humiliating to consider that

The

very fre

Almost every body knows this; and it is considered the most inhuman nation in Europe in our treatment of horses. In other countries these animals, and even oxen, are taught to obey the word of the driver; but in Britain he requires both halter or rein, and a whip; and in most parts of England the slightest movement from right to left is indicated to the animal by the latter implement. Driving is more especially neglected, or wretchedly performed, near large towns, and especially round London, where little or no attention is paid to avoiding the ruts; choosing the best part of the road; going in a direct line; altering the position of the load (by means of the back chain or the construction of the cart where that admits of it) in going up or down hill; or seeing whether both horses (where two are used) draw equally. The reverse of this conduct ought to be that of a careful and humane driver, who, being first certain that his cattle are properly yoked, and his load fairly adjusted so as to be neither too heavy nor too light for the wheel or shaft horse, will see that they proceed along the best part of the road in a straight line, avoiding the ruts when deep or unequal; that all the horses draw equally as far as practicable; that proper care and timely precautions be taken to avoid other machines meeting or passing; and that no sudden motion or jerk of the horses be required on any occasion. In dividing the road where it is steep or in a bad state, the horses ought to be drawn aside gradually, and gradually led on again; it being easier to descend or ascend either a good or bad convex rond obliquely, than at an acute angle. Lastly, servants ought on no account to be allowed to ride on laden carts or waggons, especially he former; or to walk at a distance from them either before or behind. There are many other points which require attending to in this department of agriculture; such as not striking animals on the head or legs, nor kicking them, nor using a pole or handle of any implement that may be at hand, in administering chastisement; but these must be left to the care and discretion of masters, whose interest it is to be most vigilant in watching those who are engaged in this department.

3273. One mode of lessening the evils of careless driving and inhumanity to animals consists in employing chiefly married servants, and, as is generally the case, letting each have the exclusive care and working of one pair of horses. Such men are steadier, and remain much longer in their situations, than single men, and are therefore more likely to feel an interest in the welfare and good condition of their horses, as well as in the good opinion of their employer.

3274. Driving cattle in a threshing-machine required particular care before the ingenious invention, described § 2755., to equalise the draught of the different animals; where this invention is applied, it requires little more than calling to such of the cattle, as have a tendency to relax in their exertions.

SECT. III. Labours and Operations with the Crop, performed with the Aid of Cattle.

3275. Labours with the crop chiefly comprise stacking and housing,pme

3276. Stacking is the operation of building or piling up unthreshed corn, hay, straw, or other dried crops, in convenient forms, and so as to admit of their being thatched as a defence from the weather. Stacks are of various forms and dimensions, according to circumstances; in some districts they are formed square (or oblong, both for hay and corn; but where threshing-machines are in use, the circular base with cylindrical body, diverging a little at the eaves, and a conical top, is decidedly preferred, as being more convenient in size and form, and better adapted for early stacking in wet seasons than any other. For hay the form of the stack is a matter of less consequence; the long square or oblong shapes are perhaps the most safe and convenient, especially when not too broad, as they are the most suitable to cut from in trussing hay for sales ¿zoomtow mod bo..

3277. In respect to the sizes of corn-stacks of the square sort, they of course vary greatly according to circumstances; but they should never be made too large, as there is a great deal more risk in securing and getting in the grain from them; and from their being built at different times, they do not settle altogether in so perfect a manner, or resist the effects of the weather and keep the grain so well, as those of less dimensions that can be completed at once: and, in addition, they are less convenient in the threshing out, especially where the flail is employed. The chief advantages they possess, are those of taking something less in thatch and labour in covering them.

410.1

3278. The proper size of the hay-stack should probably be different in some degree according to the state and nature of the hay; but a middling size is perhaps the best, say from twenty to thirty loads of about one ton each, as there are inconveniences in both small and large stacks, the former having too much outside, while the latter are liable to take on too much heat, and at the same time permit less moisture to be preserved in the hay. In small stacks the bellying forms with very narrow bottoms have often much advantage, and are in some districts termed sheep-stacks, probably from the slovenly practice of sheep having been permitted to feed at them.

3279. In building every description of stack, the stem or body should be so formed as to swell gradually outwards, quite up to the part termed the eaves; as by this method it is more perfectly secured against the entrance of moisture, and at the same time requires a less space of stand to rest upon; and, when the building of them is well performed, they have equal solidity, and stand in as firm a manner, to brow art gode o

$280. The stem should contain about two thirds, and the roof one third, of the whole stack. If it be built on a frame, the stem should contain less and the roof more; If on a bottom, the reverse. The corners of the stem should not be built too sharp, but should be carried up rather doinidishg by which the sides will look fuller, and the swell given by the pressure will be more perceptible.commons.vibodo 3281. The ends of the roof should have a gentle projection, answerable to the stem; and the sides should be carried up rather convex, than' flat or concave. Perhaps a roof gently convex shoots off the rains better than any other. pan yd bool o to no frog sdt gaitotle ; 90 1913282. Where corn is stacked that has not been sheaved, and in building hay-sticks, it is the usual practice to have a number of persons upon the stack,the corn) or hay being forked up and deposited on the different sides all round in a similar method; after this, other parcels are laid all round on the inside of these, so as to bind them in a secure manner from slipping outwards; the operator proceeding in the same manner till the whole of the middle space is perfectly filled up: when he begins another course in the same method, and goes on in this mode, with course after course, till he has raised the whole of the stem; when he begins to take in for the roof, in a very gradual manner, in every succeeding course, until the whole is brought to a ridge or point according to the manner in which the stack is formed. But for the purpose that the roofs may throw off the water in a more perfect and effectual manner, they should be made so as to have a slight degree of fulness or swell about the middle of them, and not be made flat, as is too frequently the practice with indifferent builders of stacks to allow of to; *

3283. In stacking where the corn is bound into sheaves, there is seldom more than one person employed in managing the work of building the stack, except in cases where the dimensions are very considerable; in which cases it is found necessary to have a boy to receive the sheaves from the pitcher, and hand them to the man who builds the stack. In executing the work, it is of the utmost importance that the centre of the stack be constantly kept in a somewhat raised state above the sides, as the sheaves have thus a sloping direction outwards, by which the entrance of moisture is more effectually guarded against and prevented. To accomplish this in the most perfect manner, the workman begins in the middle of the stand or staddle, setting the sheaves together so that they may incline a little against each other, placing the rest in successive rows against them till he comes to the outside, when he carries a course of sheaves quite round, in a more sloping manner than in the preceding courses. The bottom of the stack, being formed in this way, it is afterwards usual to begin at the outside, and advance with different courses round the whole, placing each course a little within the other, so as to bind them in an exact and careful manner, till the stacker comes to the middle, All the different courses are to be laid on in a similar manner until the whole of the stem is raised and completed; when the last outside row of sheaves is, in most cases, placed a very little more out than the others, in order to form a sort of projection for the eaves, that the water may be thrown off more effectually. But in cases where the stems of the stacks are formed so as to project outwards in the manner already noticed, this may be omitted without any bad consequences, as the water will be thrown off easily without touching the waste of the stack. The roof is to be formed by placing the sheaves gradually a little more in and in, in every course, until it comes to a ridge or point, according to the form of the stack, as has been already observed. But in forming and constructing this part of the stack, great care should constantly be taken to give the ear-ends of the sheaves a sufficiently sloping direction upwards, in order that they may be the better secured from wetness; and to the outside should be given a rounded form, in the manner that has been already noticed.

TP 3284. A funnel or chimney is frequently formed or left in circular stacks, especially in wet districts, in order to prevent their taking on too much heat where these funnels are not formed with the basement of timber, iron, or masonry, as already shown (2908.), they are produced by tying a sheaf up in a very tight manner, and placing it in the middle on the foundation of the stack, pulling it up occasionally as the building of the stack proceeds all round it. In setting up ricks in bad harvests, it is a practice in some places, particularly with barley crops, to have three or four pretty large poles tied together, by winding straw ropes round them, set up in the middle, round which the stacks are then

built. But except the stacks are large, or the grain when put into them in an imperfect condition, such openings are quite unnecessary.

3285. The stacking of hay requires much care and attention in the person employed for the purpose, though less than that of building corn-stacks. There should constantly be a proper stand or foundation, somewhat raised by wood or other materials, prepared for placing the stacks upon; but nothing of the coping kind is here necessary. In the business of stacking hay, the work should be constantly performed, as much as possible, while the sun is upon the hay, as considerable advantage is thus gained in its quality: and it is necessary to have a stacker that has been accustomed to the business, and a proper number of persons to help upon the stack, in order that it may be well spread out and trodden down.

3286. The building of hay-stacks should be conducted much in the same way as the building of stacks of loose grain (3282.); the middle of the stack being always well kept up a little higher than the sides, and the sides and ends well bound in by the proper application of the successive portions of hay as the work advances; and during which it is a good way, where there are plenty of hands, to have the sides and ends properly pulled into form, as by this means much after-labour is prevented. It is likewise of advantage, that the hay should be well shaken and broken from the lumps, during the operation of stacking. The form in which the stacks are built is not of much consequence; but, if large, and made in the square form, it is better not to have them too broad, or of too great width, as by this means they are less apt to heat. With the intention of preventing too much heat, sometimes in building hay-stacks, as well as those of the grain kind, holes, pipes, and chimneys, are left in the middle, that the excessive heat may be discharged; but there is often injury sustained by them, from their attracting too much moisture.

3287. The hay-stacks of Middleser, it is observed by Middleton, are more neatly formed and better secured than any where else. At every vacant time, while the stack is carrying up, the men are employed in pulling it with their hands into a proper shape; and about a week after it is finished the whole roof is properly thatched, and then secured from receiving any damage from the wind, by means of a straw rope extending along the eaves, up the ends, and near the ridge. The ends of the thatch are afterwards cut evenly below the eaves of the stack, just of sufficient length for the rain water to drip quite clear off the hay. When the stack happens to be placed in a situation which may be suspected of being too damp in the winter, a trench of about six or eight inches deep is dug round, and nearly close to it, which serves to convey all the water from the spot, and renders it perfectly dry and secure.

3288. The stack guard (fig. 519.), or covering of canvass, is employed in some districts to protect the stack while building in a wet season. In Kent and Surrey, the half

worn sails of ships are made use of for this purpose, though in most parts of the north a covering of loose straw or hay is found sufficient in ordinary cases; but where, from a continued rain, the stack is penetrated some way down, a part is removed on recommencing, and dried before being replaced. It is observed by Marshal, that a sail-cloth thrown over and immediately upon the hay of a stack in full heat, is liable to do more injury by increasing the heat, and at the same time checking the ascent of the steam, than service in shooting off rain water. The improved method of spreading the cloth he describes as follows: two tall poles (a, a) are inserted firmly in two cart wheels (b, b), which are laid flat upon the ground at each end of the stack, and loaded with stones to increase their stability. Another pole of the same kind, and somewhat longer than the stack, is furnished at each end with an iron ring or hoop, large enough to admit the upright poles and to pass freely upon them. Near the head of each of the standards is a