a house (c) is constructed for those who take care of the oysters, and who sell them to the dealers in Naples, or to those who come and eat them on the spot; and adjoining the house is a covered enclosure (b), where the oysters are kept till wanted. Along the margin of the lake, and in most parts of it, are placed circles of reeds (a), with their summits above the water. The spawn of the oysters attaches itself to these reeds, and grows there till of an edible size: the oysters are then removed to the reserve (b), and kept there till wanted. In removing them the reeds are pulled up one by one, examined, and the full-grown oysters removed and put in baskets, while the small-sized and spawn are suffered to remain, and the reed is replaced as it was. The baskets are then placed in the reserve, and not emptied till sold. In two years from the spawn, Lasteyrie observes, the oyster is fully grown.

SECT. II. Of the present State of Agriculture in Switzerland.

326. The agriculture of Switzerland is necessarily of a peculiar nature, and on a very confined scale. The country is strictly pastoral; little corn is produced, and the crops are scanty and precarious. Cattle, sheep, and goats constitute the chief riches and dependence of the inhabitants. Each proprietor farms his own small portion of land; or the mountainous tracts belonging to the communities are pastured in common. But, whether private or common property, it is evident that mountainous pastures are little susceptible of improvement. (For. Quart. and Continent. Miscell., Jan. 1828.)

327. Though of a very primitive kind, this agriculture is not without interest, from the nice attention required in some parts of its operations. The surface, soil, and climate of the country, are so extraordinarily irregular and diversified, that in some places grapes ripen, and in many others corn will not arrive at maturity; on one side of a hill the inhabitants are often reaping, while they are sowing on the other; or they are obliged to feed the cattle on its summits with leaves of evergreens while they are making hay at its base. A season often happens in which rains during harvest prevent the corn from being dried, and it germinates, rots, and becomes useless; in others it is destroyed by frost. In some cases there is no corn to reap, from the effect of summer storms. In no country is so much skill required in harvesting corn and hay as Switzerland; and no better school could be found for the study of that part of Scotch and Irish farming. After noticing some leading features of the culture of the cantons which form the republic, we shall cast our eye on the mountains of Savoy.

SUBSECT. 1. Of the Agriculture of the Swiss Cantons.

328. Agriculture began to attract public attention in Switzerland about the middle of the eighteenth century. In 1759, a society for the promotion of rural economy established itself at Berne: they offered premiums, and have published some useful papers in several volumes. Long before that period, however, the Swiss farmers were considered the most exact in Europe. (Stanyan's Account of Switzerland in 1714.) Chateauvieux attributes the progress which agriculture has made, near Vevay, on the Lake of Geneva, to the settlement of the protestants, who emigrated thither from France, at the end of the seventeenth century. They cut the hills into terraces, and planted vines, which has so much increased the value of the land, that what was before worth little, now sells at 10,000 francs per acre. (Let. xxi.) Improvement in Switzerland is not likely to be rapid; because agriculture there is limited almost entirely to procuring the means of subsistence, and not to the employment of capital for profit.

329. Landed property in Switzerland is minutely divided, and almost always farmed by the proprietors and their families: or it is in immense tracts of mountain belonging to the bailiwicks, and pastured in common: every proprietor and burgess having a right according to the extent of his property. These men are, perhaps, the most frugal cultivators in Europe: they rear numerous families, a part of which is obliged to emigrate, because there are few manufactures; and land is excessively dear, and seldom in the market.

330. The valleys of the Alpine regions of Switzerland are subject to very peculiar injuries from the rivers, mountain rocks, and glaciers. As the rivers are subject to vast and sudden inundations, from the thawing of the snow on the mountains, they bring down at such times an immense quantity of stones, and spread them over the bottoms of the valleys. Many a stream, which appears in ordinary times inconsiderable, has a stony bed of half a mile in breadth, in various parts of its course; thus a portion of the finest land is rendered useless. The cultivated slopes, at the bases of the mountains, are subject to be buried under éboulemens, when the rocks above fall down, and sometimes cover many square miles with their ruins.

331. Eboulement (Fr.) denotes a falling down of a mountain or mass of rock, and consequent covering of the lower grounds with its fragments; when an immense quantity of stones are suddenly brought down from the mountains by the breaking or thawing of a glacier, it is also called an éboulement. (Bakewell, vol. i. p. 11.) Vast éboulemens are every year falling from the enormous precipices that overhang the valley of the Rhone; many of these are recorded which have destroyed entire villages.

$2. One of the most extraordinary éboulemens ever known was that of Mont Grenier, five miles south of Chambery. A part of this mountain fell down in the year 1248, and entirely buried five parishes, and the town and church of St. André. The ruins spread over an extent of about nine square miles, and are called Les Abymes des Myans. After a lapse of so many centuries, they still present a singular scene of desolation. The catastrophe must have been most awful when seen from the vicinity; for Mont Grenier is almost isolated, advancing into a narrow plain, which extends to the valley of the Isere.

533. Most Grenier rises very abruptly upwards of 4000 feet above the plain. Like the mountains of Les Echelles, with which it is connected, it is capped with an immense mass of limestone strata, not less than 600 feet in thickness, which presents on every side the appearance of a wall. The strata dip gently to the side which fell into the plain. This mass of limestone rests on a foundation of softer strata, probably molasse. Under this molasse are distinctly seen thin strata, probably of limestone, alternating with soft strata. There can be little doubt that the catastrophe was caused by the gradual erosion of the soft strata which undermined the mass of limestone above, and projected it into the plain; it is also probable that the part which fell had for some time been nearly detached from the mountain by a shrinking of the southern side, as there is at present a rent at this end, upwards of two thousand feet deep, which seems to have cut off a large section from the eastern end, and that now "Hangs in doubtful ruins o'er its base," as if prepared to renew the catastrophe of 1248.

$34. Avalanches, or falls of immense masses of snow from the mountains, often occasion dreadful effects. Villages are overwhelmed by them; and rivers, stopped in their course by them, inundate narrow valleys to a ruinous extent. In February 1820, the village of Obergestelen, with eighty-eight of its inhabitants, was overwhelmed by an avalanche.

So. The glaciers, or ice-bills, or ice-heaps, slide down into the mountain valleys, and form dams across them, which produce large lakes; by the breaking up of the glacier, these lakes are sometimes suddenly poured into the lower valleys, and do immense mischief. Man, in such a country, as Bakewell has observed, is in a constant state of warfare with the elements, and compelled to be incessantly on his guard against the powers that threaten his destruction. This constant exposure to superhuman dangers is supposed to have given the aged inhabitants, especially of the Vallais, an air of uncommon seriousness and melancholy.

336. The Swiss cottages are generally formed of wood, with projecting roofs, covered with slates, tiles, or shingles. A few small enclosures surround or are contiguous to them, some of which are watered meadows, others dry pasture; and one or more always devoted to the raising of oats, some barley, and rye or wheat, for the family consumption. In the garden, which is large in proportion to the farm, are grown hemp, flax, tobacco, potatoes, white beet to be used as spinach and asparagus, French beans, cabbages, and turnips. The whole has every appearance of neatness and comfort. There are, however, some farmers who hire lands from the corporate bodies and others at a fixed rent, or on the metayer system; and in some cases both land and stock are hired; and peasants are found who hire so many cows and their keep, during a certain number of months, either for a third or more of the produce, or for a fixed sum.

337. The villages of Switzerland are often built in lofty situations, and some so high as 5000 feet above the level of the sea. "In a country where land is much divided, and small proprietors cultivate their own property on the mountains, it is absolutely necessary that they should reside near it, otherwise a great part of their time and strength would be exhausted in ascending and descending, as it would take a mountaineer four hours in each day, to ascend to many of these villages and return to the valley. In building their houses on the mountains, they place them together in villages, when it can be done, and at a moderate distance from their property, to have the comforts of society, and be more secure from the attack of wolves and other wild animals. Potatoes and barley can be cultivated at the height of 4500 feet in Savoy, and these, with cheese and milk, and a little maize for porridge, form the principal part of the food of the peasantry. The harvest is over in the plains by the end of June, and in the mountains by the end of September. Several of the mountain villages, with the white spires of their churches, form pleasing objects in the landscape, but on entering them the charm vanishes, and nothing can exceed the dirtiness and want of comfort which they present, except the cabins of the Irish." (Bakewell's Travels, vol. i. 270.) Yet habit, and a feeling of independence, which the mountain peasant enjoys under almost every form of government, make him disregard the inconveniences of his situation and abode. Damsels and their flocks form pleasing groups at a distance; but the former, viewed near, bear no more resemblance to les bergères des Alpes of the poets, than a female Hottentot to the Venus de Medicis.

338. The vine is cultivated in several of the Swiss cantons on a small scale; and either against trellises, or kept low and tied to short stakes as in France. The grapes, which seldom ripen well, produce a very inferior wine. The best in Switzerland are grown in the Pays de Vaud round Vevay. They are white, and, Bakewell says, " as large and fine-flavoured as our best hot-house grapes." The physicians at Geneva send some of their patients here during the vintage, to take what is called a regular course of grapes; that is, to subsist for three weeks entirely on this fruit, without taking any other food or drink. In a few days a grape diet becomes agreeable, and weak persons, and also the insane, have found great relief from subsisting on it for three or four weeks. (Bakewell's Travels, ii. 206.)

339. Of fruit trees, the apple, pear, cherry, plum, and walnut, surround the small field or fields of every peasant. The walnut tree also lines the public roads in many places, and its dropping fruit is often the only food of the mendicant traveller.

The

340. The management of woods and forests forms a part of Swiss culture.

for fuel, as in all countries; and when a mode of conveyance and a market can be found the timber is sold, but in many places neither is the case. A singular construction was erected for the purpose of bringing down to the Lake of Lucerne the fine pine trees which grow upon Mount Pilatus, by the engineer Rupp. The wood was purchased by a company for 3000l., and 9000l. were expended in constructing the slide. The length of the slide is about 44,000 English feet, or about eight miles and two furlongs; and the difference of level of its two extremities is about 2600 feet. It is a wooden trough, about five feet broad and four deep, the bottom of which consists of three trees, the middle one being a little hollowed; and small rills of water are conducted into it, for the purpose of diminishing the friction. The declivity, at its commencement, is about 2210. The large pines, with their branches and boughs cut off, are placed in the slide, and descending by their own gravity, they acquire such an impetus by their descent through the first part of the slide, that they perform their journey of eight miles and a quarter in the short space of six minutes; and, under favourable circumstances, that is, in wet weather, in three minutes. Only one tree descends at a time, but, by means of signals placed along the slide, another tree is launched as soon as its predecessor has plunged into the lake. Sometimes the moving trees spring or bolt out of the trough, and when this happens, they have been known to cut through trees in the neighbourhood, as if it had been done by an axe. When the trees reach the lake, they are formed into rafts, and floated down the Reuss into the Rhine.

341. Timber is also floated down mountain torrents from a great height. The trees are cut down during summer and laid in the then dry bed of the stream: with the first heavy rains in autumn they are set in motion, and go thundering down among the rocks to the valleys, where what arrives sound is laid aside for construction, and the rest is used as fuel. 342. The chamois goats abound in some of the forests, and are hunted for their fat and flesh, and for their skins, which are valuable as glove and breeches leather. They herd in flocks, led by a female; live on lichens, and on the young shoots and bark of pines; are remarkably fond of salt; and require great caution in hunting. (Simond's Switzerland, vol. i. p. 245.) The common goat is frequently domesticated for the sake of its milk, and may be seen near cottages, curiously harnessed (fig. 42.) to prevent its breaking through, or jumping over, fences.

343. The care of pastures and mowing grounds forms an important part of the agricultural economy

of Switzerland. In places inaccessible to cattle, the peasant sometimes makes hay with cramps on his feet. Grass, not three inches high, is cut in some places three times a year; and, in the valleys, the fields are seen shaven as close as a bowling-green, and all inequalities cropped as with a pair of scissors. In Switzerland, as in Norway, and for the same reasons, the arts of mowing and hay-making seem to be carried to the highest degree of perfection. Harvesting corn is not less perfect; and the art of procuring fodder for cattle, from the trees, shrubs, and wild plants, and applying this fodder with economy, is pushed as far as it will go. In some parts, very minute attention is paid to forming and collecting manure, especially that liquid manure, which, in the German cantons, is known under the name of jauche or mist-wasser, and in the Canton de Vaud, of sissier. (For. Quart. Rev. and Cont. Mis., Jan. 1828.)

344. Cows, goats, and sheep constitute the wealth of the Swiss farmers, and their principal means of support; or, to discriminate more accurately, the goats, in a great measure, support the poorer class; and the cows supply the cheese from which the richer derive their little wealth. The extent of a pasture is estimated by the number of cows it maintains: six or eight goats are deemed equal to a cow, as are four calves, four sheep, or four hogs; but a horse is reckoned equal to five or six cows, because he roots up the grass. Throughout the high Alps, they are of opinion that sheep are destructive to the pastures, in proportion to their elevation, because the herbage, which they eat down to the roots, cannot, in such a cold climate, regain its strength and luxuriance. The mountain pastures are rented at so much per cow's feed, from the 15th of May to the 18th of October; and the cows are hired from the peasants for the same period: at the end of it, both are restored to their owners. In other parts, the proprietors of the pastures hire the cows, or the proprietors of the cows rent the land. The proceeds of a cow are estimated at 31. or 31. 10s., viz. 258. in summer; and, during the time they are kept in the valleys or in the house, at 2. The Grindelwald Alps feed three thousand cows, and as many sheep and goats. The cattle are attended on the mountains by herdsmen ; when the weather is tempestuous they are up all night calling to them, other. wise they would take fright and run into danger. Chalets are built for the use of the herdsmen: these are log-houses of the rudest construction, without a chimney, having a pit or trench dug for the fire, the earth thrown up forming a mound around it, by way of a seat. To those chalets, the persons whose employment it is to milk the cows, and to make cheese and butter, ascend in the summer time. When they go out to milk the cows, a portable seat, with a single leg, is strapped to their backs; at the hour of milking, the cows are attracted home from the most distant pastures by a handful of salt, which the shepherd takes from a leathern pouch hanging over his shoulder. During the milking, the Ranz des Vaches is frequently sung. (For. Quart. Rev. and Cont. Misc.)

345. The Swiss cows yield more milk than those of Lombardy, where they are in great demand; but after the third generation their milk falls off. In some parts of Switzerland they yield, on an average,

twelve English quarts a day; and with forty cows, a cheese of forty-five pounds can be made daily. In the vicinity of Altdorf they make, in the course of a hundred days, from the 20th of June, two cheeses daily, of twenty-five pounds each, from the milk of eighteen cows. On the high pastures of Scarla, a cow during the best season, supplies near sixty pounds of skim-milk cheese, and forty pounds of butter. Reckoning twenty pounds of milk, observes our author, equivalent to one of butter, the produce in milk will be eight bundred pounds for ninety days, or less than nine pounds a day. This small supply he ascribes to the great elevation of the pastures, and the bad keep of the cows in the winter. (For. Quart. Ree, and Cont. Misc.)

346 Great variety of cheese is made in Switzerland. The most celebrated are the Schabzieger and Gruyère; the former made by the mountaineers of the canton of Glarus, and the latter in the valley of Gruyère. The cheese of Switzerland must have been for a long period a great article of commerce; for, Myconius, of Lucerne, in the beginning of the sixteenth century, in a commentary on a poem of his friend Glarianus, expatiates on the large quantities of butter and cheese which his fellow-citizens sent into Burgundy, Suabia, and Italy: he adds, that twenty cows would bring in, annually, a net sum of 100 crowns. In 156, a law was passed in the Upper Engadine to guard against fraud in the manufacture of cheese meant for sale. Formerly, the depots of rich cheese were principally near Lake Como; it was supposed that the exhalations, at once warm and moist, ripened the cheese, without drying it too much; at present, however, these depots are not near so numerous. In the Upper Engadine, cheese loses, by drying, a twentieth part of its weight in the first ten weeks; and skim-milk cheese the half of its weight in two years. Of the quantity of cheeses exported from Switzerland we have no information that can be relied upon; but it is computed that thirty-thousand hundred-weight of Gruyère cheese alone, fit for exportation, is annually made; and that, from the middle of July to October, three hundred horses, weekly, are employed in transporting Swiss cheese over Mount Grias. (For. Rev. and Cont. Misc.)

347. The Schabzieger cheese is made by the mountaineers of the Canton of Glarus alone; and, in its greatest perfection, in the valley of Kloen. It is readily distinguished by its marbled appearance and aromatic flavour, both produced by the bruised leaves of the melilot. The dairy is built near a stream of water; the vessels containing the milk are placed on gravel or stone in the dairy, and the water conducted into it in such a manner as to reach their brim. The milk is exposed to this temperature, about six degrees of Reaumur (forty-six degrees of Fahrenheit), for five or six days, and in that time the cream is completely formed. After this it is drained off, the cascous particles are separated, by the addition of some sour milk, and not by rennet. The curd thus obtained is pressed strongly in bags, on which stones are laid; when sufficiently pressed and dried, it is ground to powder in autumn, salted, and mixed with either the pressed flowers or the bruised seeds of the melilot trefoil (Melilotus officinalis). (fig. 43.) The practice of mixing the flowers or the seeds of plants with cheese was common among the Romans, who used those of the thyme for that purpose. The entire separation of the cream or unctuous portion of the milk is indispensable in the manufacture of Schabzieger. The unprepared curd never sells for more than three halfpence a pound; whereas, prepared as Schabzieger, it sells for sixpence or seven-pence. (For. Rev. and Cont. Misc.)

348. The Gruyere cheese of Switzerland is so named after a valley, where the best of that kind is made. Its merit depends chiefly on the herbage of the mountain pastures, and partly on the custom of mixing the flowers or bruised seeds of Melilotus officinalis with the curd, before it is pressed. The mountain pastures are rented at so much per cow's feed from the 15th of May to the 18th of October; and the cows are hired from the peasants, at so much, for the same period. On the precise day both land and cows return to their owners. It is estimated that 15,000 cows are so grazed, and 30,000 cwt. of cheese made fit for exportation, besides what is reserved for home use.

349. Ewe-milk cheese of Switzerland. One measure of ewe's milk is added to three measures of cow's milk; little rennet is used, and no acid. The best Swiss cheese of this kind is made by the Bergamese sheep-masters, on Mount Splugen. (For. Rev. and Cont. Misc.)

350. The establishment at Hofwyl, near Berne, may be considered as in great part belonging to agriculture, and deserves to be noticed in this outline. It was projected by, and is conducted at the sole expense of, M. Fellenberg, a proprietor and agriculturist. His object was to apply a sounder system of education for the great body of the people, in order to stop the progress of misery and crime. Upwards of twelve years ago he undertook to systematise domestic education, and to show, on a large scale, how the children of the poor might be best taught, and their labour at the same time most profitably applied; in short, how the first twenty years of a poor man's life might be so employed as to provide both for his support and his education. The peasants in his neighbourhood were at first rather shy of trusting their children for a new experiment; and being thus obliged to take his pupils where he could find them, many of the earliest were the sons of vagrants, and literally picked up on the highways: this is the case with one or two of the most distinguished pupils.

351. Their treatment is nearly that of children under the paternal roof. They go out every morning to their work soon after sunrise, having first breakfasted, and received a lesson of about an hour: they return at noon. Dinner takes them half an hour, a lesson of one hour follows; then to work again till six in the evening. On Sunday the different lessons take six hours instead of two; and they have butcher's meat on that day only. They are divided into three classes, according to age and strength; an entry is made in a book every night of the number of hours each class has worked, specifying the sort of labour done, in order that it may be charged to the proper account, each particular crop having an account opened for it, as well as every new building, the live stock,

of-doors work, the boys plait straw for chairs, make baskets, saw logs with the cross-saw and split them, thrash and winnow corn, grind colours, knit stockings, or assist the wheelwright and other artificers, of whom there are many employed in the establishment. For all which different sorts of labour an adequate salary is credited to each boy's class.

352. The boys never see a newspaper, and scarcely a book; they are taught, viva voce, a few matters of fact, and rules of practical application: the rest of their education consists chiefly in inculcating habits of industry, frugality, veracity, docility, and mutual kindness, by means of good example, rather than precepts; and, above all, by the absence of bad example. It has been said of the Bell and Lancaster schools, that the good they do is mostly negative: they take children out of the streets, employ them in a harm. less sort of mental sport two or three hours in the day, exercise their understanding gently and pleasantly, and accustom them to order and rule, without compulsion. Now, what these schools undertake to do for a few hours of each week, during one or two years of a boy's life, the School of Industry at Hofwyl does incessantly, during the whole course of his youth; providing, at the same time, for his whole physical maintenance, at a rate which must be deemed excessively cheap for any but the very lowest of the people.

353. The practicability of this scheme for inculcating individual prudence and practical morality, not only in the agricultural, but in all the operative, classes of society, M. Simond considers as demonstrated; and it only remains to ascertain the extent of its application. Two only of the pupils have left Hofwyl, for a place, before the end of their time; and one, with M. de Fellenberg's leave, is become chief manager of the immense estates of Comte Abaffy, in Hungary, and has, it is said, doubled its proceeds by the improved method of husbandry he has introduced. This young man, whose name is Madorly, was originally a beggar boy, and not particularly distinguished at school. Another directs a school established near Zurich, and acquits himself to the entire satisfaction of his employers. M. Fellenberg has besides a number of pupils of the higher classes, some of whom belong to the first families of Germany, Russia, and Switzerland. They live en famille with their master, and are instructed by the different tutors in the theory and practice of agriculture, and in the arts and sciences on which it is founded. (See Simond's Account of Switzerland, vol. i.; Ed. Rev. 1819, No. 64.; Des Institutes de Hofwyl de par Cte. L. de V. Paris, 1821.)

SUBSECT. 2. Of the Agriculture of the Duchy of Savoy.

354. Of the agriculture of Savoy, which naturally belongs to Switzerland, a general view, with some interesting details, is given by Bakewell. (Travels in the Tarantaise, &c., 1820-22.) Landed property there is divided into three qualities, and rated for a landtax accordingly. There is an office for registering estates, to which a per centage is paid on each transfer or additional registering. There is also an office for registering all mortgages, with the particulars; both are found of great benefit to the landed interest and the public, by the certainty which they give to titles, and the safety both to borrowers and lenders on land.

355. Land in Savoy is divided into very small farms, and is occupied by the proprietors or paysans, who live in an exceedingly frugal manner, and cultivate the ground with the assistance of their wives and children; for in Savoy, as in many other parts of Europe, the women do nearly as much field labour as the men.

356. The lands belonging to the monasteries were sold during the French revolution, when Savoy was annexed to France. The gradual abolition of the monasteries had been begun by the old government of Sardinia before the revolution, for the monks were prohibited from receiving any new brethren into their establishments, in order that the estates might devolve to the crown, on the extinction of the different fraternities. This measure, though wise in the abstract, was not unattended with inconvenience, and perhaps we may add, injustice. The poor, who had been accustomed to fly to the monasteries for relief in cases of distress, were left without any support, except the casual charity of their neighbours, who had little to spare from their own absolute necessities. The situation of the poor is therefore much worse in Savoy, than before the abolition of the monasteries. The poor in England suffered in the same manner, on the abolition of the monasteries in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth, before the poor's rates were enacted. The charity of the monks of Savoy lost much of its usefulness by the indiscriminate manner in which it was generally bestowed: certain days and hours were appointed at each monastery, for the distribution of provisions, and the indolent were thereby enabled to support themselves during the whole week, by walking to the different monasteries on the days of donation. This was offering a premium to idleness, and was the means of increasing the number of mendicants, which will, in every country, be proportionate to the facility of obtaining food without labour.

357. The peasantry in Savoy are very poor, but they cannot be called miserable. In the neighbourhood of towns, their situation is worse than at a distance; and not far from Chambery may be seen a few families that might almost vie in squalid misery, rags, and filth, with the poor of Ireland; but the general appearance of the peasantry is respectable. Having learnt the price of labour in various parts of Savoy, Bakewell proposed the following question: Is it possible for a labourer, with a family, to procure a sufficient quantity of wholesome food for their consumption? One of the answers was, "Cela est très-facile (It is very easy)", the other was, "The labourer lives very frugally (très-sobrement)." "In general he eats very coarse, but wholesome, bread, and, except in the mountains, he eats very little meat, and rarely drinks wine, but he has a great resource in potatoes."

358. One day's labour of a farming man will purchase about twelve pounds avoirdupois of wheat, or from four to five pounds of beef, veal, or mutton; but these are dainties which he rarely tastes; potatoes, rye. bread, chestnuts, and milk, form the principal part of the food of the poor. The day-labourer in Savoy has to deduct, from the amount of his labour, about seventy days in the year, including saint-days and Sundays, on which he receives no wages. (Bakewell's Travels, vol. i. 314.)

359. There are four modes of occupying land for cultivation in Savoy: by the proprietors; by farmers; by grangers; and by tacheurs.

360. Land very near to towns is generally cultivated by the proprietors, who either keep cattle, or take them in to graze at so much per head.