girth, by nine feet in length, will be found to contain one solid foot of wood, and will produce thirteen pounds and a half of bark." (Forester's Guide, 170.)

4073. When growing trees are valued, an allowance is made from their cubic contents for the bark. The rule given by Monteith is, "When the girth or circumference is any thing from twelve inches up to twenty-four inches, then deduct two inches; from twenty-four to thirty-six, three inches; from thirty-six to forty-eight, four inches; from forty-eight to seventy-two, five inches; and above seventy-two, six inches. These deductions," he says, "will be found to answer in almost all trees; unless in such as are very old, and have rough and corky barks, or barks covered with moss, when an extra allowance is to be made." (Forester's Guide, 180.)

trees.

4074. In valuing measurable oak-trees, many persons proceed on the data that every cubic foot of timber will produce a stone (sixteen pounds) of bark. "This," Monteith says, "is not always correct ;" and he states the following facts from his own experience, with a view to assist beginners in ascertaining the quantity of bark from different "An oak-tree, about forty years old, measured down to four inches and a half as the side of the square, and weighing only the bark peeled off the timber that is measured, without including the bark of the spray, &c., every foot of measured timber will produce from nine to eleven pounds of bark. An oak-tree of eighty years old, weighing only the bark peeled off the measurable timber, as above, every foot will produce from ten to thirteen pounds of bark. Every foot of large birch timber, peeled as above, will produce fourteen pounds of bark. Every foot of mountain-ash, as above, will produce eleven pounds and a half of bark. Every foot of the willow, unless a very old one, will produce from nine to eleven pounds of bark. Every foot of larch fir, not exceeding thirty years old, will produce from seven to nine pounds of bark. The bark of trees, particularly the oak, is peeled off, every branch and shoot, down as small as an inch in circumference." (Forester's Guide, 189.)

4075. To facilitate the measuring of standing timber, various ingenious instruments and machines have been invented, by Monteith, Gorrie, Rogers, and others. Perhaps the most generally useful is Broad's callipers (fig. 599). This instrument is composed of two thin pieces of deal about thirteen feet long, with

599

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for the bark. For taking the height of a tree, rods of deal or bamboo, seven feet long, made so as to fit into ferules at the end of each other, tapering as in a fishing-rod, may be used. Five of them with feet marked on them would enable a man quickly to measure the height of a trunk of more than forty feet as he would reach above seven feet. Monteith's machine being described in the Encyclopædia of Gardening (2d edit. $6970), and Gorrie's in the Gard. Mag. (vol. ii. p. 9.), we shall here confine ourselves to the invention of Mr. Rogers,

4076. Rogers's dendrometer (fig. 600) consists of a tripod stand, and a machine for taking angles horizontally as well as vertically. An upright stem arises from the top plate, at the end of which is a ball, with a hole perforated through it, to receive the horizontal stem of the instrument; b c may be called the base limb of the instrument, which is to be placed in a truly horizontal position, and adjusted by the suspended level (d). The limb (e) rises on a joint at c, and slides upon a vertical arch (f) which is graduated. At the joint (c) there is an eye-piece, through which the surveyor looks along the side of the bar (b) to a small point, or rising edge, at the end of the bar; the part of the tree cut by this line of observation will, if the instrument is properly adjusted, be perfectly horizontal with the eye-piece. An eye. piece is also placed at c, on the upper

side of the rising limb, for the purpose of looking along this limb to a point or rising edge (e) in its extremity. The surveyor elevates this limb, until that part of the tree intended to be noticed is exactly cut by the line of observation, and the angle subtended between that and the horizontal is shown upon the vertical arch (f). It is here to be remarked, that the graduations upon the arch (ƒ) are not angles of altitude, but marks or graduations answering to feet and inches of a tangent line, extending from the horizontal point upwards, taken at a given distance from the tree; consequently, there are two or more rows of divisions, answering to the several distances at which the instrument may be planted. Twentyfour feet and forty-eight feet are proposed distances, and the graduations upon the arch (ƒ) are made accordingly. For lofty trees, the longer distance is to be used; but for shorter trees, the distance of twentyfour feet will be sufficient. The horizontal, angles which are to determine the diameter of the trunk, at the several points of observation, are ascertained by the limb (g), which slides laterally upon an arch or graduated plate (h) divided upon the same principles as the arch (7). The limbs (b) or (e) being fixed, so as to coincide with one side of the trunk, the limb g) is then moved until it coincides with the other side of the trunk, and the angle subtended between the two shows, by the graduated plate (h), the diameter in feet and inches of the trunk at the points of observation. The length of the trunk, and its diameter in the several parts, being thus ascertained by the improved instrument, recourse must then be had to tables, calculations, or the ordinary sliding rule, for the purpose of obtaining from these admeasurements, the solid content of timber in each portion of the tree. There are adjusting screws, and circular racks and pinions for moving the limbs of the instrument, and altering their position, as círcumstances may require; and when crooked arms, or bent parts of the trunk present themselves, the instrument may be turned upon its pin, in the ball at the top of the stem (a), and used in an inclined position. (Newton's Jour. vol. ix. p. 360.) {" །

4077. The price of timber, like that of every other article in general use, varies with the supply and demand, and is easily ascertained from the timber-merchants at the different sea-ports; as is that of bark, charcoal, and fire-wood, from the tanners and coal-merchants.

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1

4078. The usual modes of disposing of timber trees are, selling the trees standing, by auction, by receiving written proposals, or by bargain and sale; 2d, cutting down the trees, and selling them in the rough, by either of these methods; 3d, converting the fallen trees; that is, cutting them up into the planks or pieces to which they are best adapted, or which are most eligible in the given situation. The first method seems the best, especially on a large scale, and also for the disposal of copse wood or osier crops.

4079. The formation of orchards is to be considered among the permanent improvements of an estate; and should be kept in view in its first arrangement or laying out. No temporary occupier could afford to plant an orchard without extraordinary encouragement from his landlord. Orchards in this respect may be ranked with timber plantations, and both subjects together agree in belonging equally to agriculture and gardening. Orchards have doubtless existed in Britain for many ages as appendages to wealthy religious establishments; but, as objects of farming or field culture, they do not appear to have been adopted till about the beginning of the seventeenth century. (Lawson.) They were then introduced by Lord Scudamore in Herefordshire, in which county, and in such parts of those adjoining as exhibit a red marly soil, are the best farm orchards in England. The chief produce of these orchards is cider and perry; but as these liquors are not in very general demand in this country, and are confessedly less wholesome and nourishing than malt liquors, their formation cannot be carried to any great extent. It seems desirable, however, that orchards of moderate size should be as generally introduced as possible; as the use of the fruit in pies, tarts, and sauces would add considerably to the comforts of the lower classes. Besides, there are some situations, as steep sheltered banks of good soil, which cannot be so profitably employed in any other branch of husbandry. The subject of orchards may be considered in regard to soil and situation, sorts of trees, planting, culture, and the manufacture or disposal of the produce.

SECT. I. Soils and Situations most suitable for Orchards.

4080. The sites of all the best apple orchards, and all the chief cider districts, have been discovered by W. Smith to be on the same stratum of red marl which stretches across the island from Dorsetshire to Yorkshire. Fruit of no kind, indeed, can be raised with much success on a soil that does not contain in its composition a portion of calcareous matter: though apple trees will thrive well on any description of clay which has a dry bottom, and pears and plums on any dry-bottomed soil whatever.

4081. The most desirable aspect is unquestionably a somewhat elevated and naturally sheltered declivity, open to the south and south-east; but, as the author of The Herefordshire Survey remarks, orchards are now found " in every aspect, and on soil of every quality, and under every culture." The most approved site, he says, is that which is open to the south-east, and sheltered in other points, but particularly in that opposite.

Much however depends on the character of the winds of a country; for in some parts of the island, the west, and in others the east or north wind, is the most injurious to vegetation.

4082. The soil which in Herefordshire is considered best adapted to most kinds of apples is a deep and rich loam when under the culture of the plough; on this, the trees grow with the greatest luxuriance, and produce the richest fruit. Some trees however, the stire and the golden pippins in particular, form exceptions to this general rule, and flourish most in hot shallow soils on a lime or sandstone. The best sorts of pear-trees also prefer the rich loam, but inferior kinds will even flourish where the soil will scarcely produce herbage. An orchard is generally raised with most success and at least expense in a hop-yard, the ground under this culture being always well tilled and manured, as well as fenced against every kind of enemy.

4083. The soils and situations devoted to farm orchards in Scotland are steep clayey banks sheltered from the more violent and injurious winds; and in whatever part of that country such situations occur, they can scarcely be more profitably employed. Fruit trees of the apple, pear, and cherry kind, especially of the hardier and tall vigorousgrowing varieties, might be introduced in the hedge-rows of dry and moderately sheltered grass-lands in most parts of the British Isles. By thus rendering these fruits universal, there would be a considerable accession of enjoyment to the lower classes, and less temptation to break into gardens and orchards.

4084. The commercial situation most desirable for an orchard is, of course, near a market town, or near a ready conveyance to one; because though the making of cider affords a profit, yet the fruit sold for culinary or table use yields a much more considerable one. In The Gloucestershire Report it is stated that the fruit, which would fetch

81. 16s. unground, would only bring in cider 31. 15s.

SECT. II. Sorts of Trees, and Manner of Planting.

4085. The most generally useful fruit that can be grown in farm orchards is the apple; next the pear; then the plum for tarts or wine; and to these may be added the cherry, filbert, walnut, chestnut, and elder. In the cider countries, where the climate is more certain than in some others, it is customary to plant but a few good sorts; and not to mix above one or two sorts together in making cider in the northern districts, on the contrary, it is a maxim to plant a considerable number of different sorts, both of those which blossom early and late; because, should the blossom of one variety be destroyed by a frosty wind, that of another may escape. In cold districts, it is advisable to plant orchards in sheltered hollows, exposed to the sun, and to plant thick: but in the warmer southern counties, many descriptions of cider and perry fruits may be grown to perfection in the hedge-rows, or as cultured trees in permanent pastures. The fittest trees for such purposes are those which grow tall, with upright shoots, and which bear fruit of a small size; such as the Siberian pippin apple, and squash teinton pear: such trees shade the hedges or pastures less than the spreading kinds, and their fruit, being small, is less likely to be blown down by high winds.

4086. The most approved sorts of cider apples we have enumerated and partially described in the accompanying table (4089). It will be particularly observed that some of the sorts form much more handsome trees than others, and should therefore be preferred for hedge-rows, and indeed in all cases where the quality of the fruit is not objectionable. Some also have smaller-sized fruit than others, and these are to be preferred for situations exposed to much wind.

4087. The colours of good cider fruit are red and yellow; the colour to be avoided is green, as affording a liquor of the harshest and generally of the poorest quality. The pulp should be yellow, and the taste rich and somewhat astringent. Apples of a small size are always, if equal in quality, to be preferred to those of a larger, in order that the rind and kernel, which contain the aromatic part, may be the more easily crushed with the pulp.

4088. The sorts of baking apples most suitable for orchards are the calvilles, of which there are several varieties, including the Hawthornden for early use; the reinettes, pearmains, and Northern greening for autumn use, and the russets and Padley's pippin for winter and spring. Many other sorts might be named, but an inspection of the fruit markets will prove that these are the best; and further details belong to books on gardening. Whoever intends to plant an orchard will do well to describe the soil, situation, climate, and object in view, to the nearest resident gardener or nurseryman of science and great experience; because the nomenclature of fruits is at present too uncertain to justify any one in trusting entirely to a selection of names taken from books. Ronalds of Brentford, Gibbs of Ampthill and Old Brompton, and Pearson of Chilwell, near Nottingham, are very extensive growers of apple trees for sale, and have paid great

4090. The dessert apples fit for orchards are the rathripes or Margarets for earliest use; the juneating, pomeroy, summer pearmain, and Kentish codling for summer use; the golden, Downton, and other pippins, especially the ribston pippin, with the nonpareil and other small russets, for autumn, winter, and spring use. The following list is given by Nicol as including a fit collection both of kitchen and dessert apples for a private orchard; those marked thus being preferable :

Ribston pippin, *oslin ditto, gogar ditto, * Kentish ditto, royal codling, Kentish ditto, * Carlisle ditto, * royal russet, Wheeler's ditto, royal pearmain, *Loan's ditto (good),*golden reinette, Kentish ditto (good), * grey Leadington, scarlet

ditto, summer greening, winter ditto, Yorkshire greening, *margil (very good), Margaret apple (good), white Hawthornden, Norfolk beaufin (good), strawberry, * pursemouth (very good).

4091. The most approved sorts of cider pears are the following: Barland, Pom. Her. t. 27., Forsyth, p. 143., fruit very austere, hardy upright tree. Holmore, Pom. Her. t. 20., Forsyth, p. 144., upright tree. Huffcap, Pom. Her. t. 24., Forsyth, p. 144., fruit austere, large, hardy trees. Oldfield, Pom. Her.

:

t. 11., Forsyth, p. 144., large tree. Rough cap, Forsyth, p. 144., very austere, hardy free-growing tree. Squash teinton, Pom. Her. t. 13., Forsyth, p. 144., fruit very austere, upright tree, and great bearer.

4092. In choosing pears for planting in orchards, the description of the plant is a matter of very considerable importance, as pear trees attain a much greater age and size than apples. In our opinion the planting of pears in hedge-rows ought to be more encouraged than the planting of apples, as they are calculated, when dried, to be used in soups; or, when stewed green, to afford a light and agreeable nourishment; and perry is at least a more wholesome and exhilarating liquor to most constitutions than cider.

4093. The baking and dessert pears fit for orchards, according to Nicol, are the following:

*Jargonelle, Crawford or grey achan, swan's egg, knap (good), Longueville,

lammas, * carnock or Drummond,
moorfowl's egg, yair, * golden
summer bergamot, * autumn ditto,

* Scot's ditto, musk robin (good), saffron, * hanging leaf (very good), the pound pear, cadillac, warden (for baking).

4094. Gorrie (Gard. Mag. vol. iv. p. 11.) recommends the Benvie (fig. 601. a), Golden Knap (6),

Elcho (c), Busked Lady (d), and Pow Meg (e), as handsome trees.

But where high-flavoured fruit is the object, and the climate is not unfavourable, the Beurrés, the Bergamots, and other new French and Flemish sorts, should be preferred. The following sorts will succeed as standards in the neighbourhood of London. Their time of ripening is indicated, and also their qualities: very good (v. g.); good (g); and moderate (m.).

July. Muscat Robert (m.), gros muscat. (g.)
Aug. Epine verte d'été (g.), * jargonelle. (v. g.)

Autumn. Bergamote silvange (g.), beurré rouge (g.), beurré vert. (g.)

Sept. Bergamote paysanne (v.g.), rousselet de Rheims. (v.g.) Sept. and Oct. Fondante d'Havay (v. g.), bon chrétien d'été. (g.)

Oct. Fondante de Brest (v.g.), épine d'hiver. (g.).

Oct. and Nov. Beurré Spence (v. g.), Marie Christine. (v.g.)

Nov. Beurré Capiaumont (v. g.), beurré crapaud (v. g.), beurré d'Afflighem (v. g.), Marie Louise (v. g.), Napoleon (v.g.), Urbaniste. (v. g.)

Dec. Beurré diel (v. g.), pastorale (g.), présent de Maines. (v. g.

Winter. Josephine (v. g.), poire Canning. (v. g.)

Dec. and Jan. *Gloux morceaux (v. g.), Roi de Rome. (g.)
Jan. Bezi Vaat (v. g.), Louise Bonne. (g.)

Jan. and Feb. Passe Colmar (v. g.), * Passe Colmar gris, dit Précel. (v. K.)

Feb. and March. Orange d'hiver (m.), l'incommunicable. (m.)
March. Duchesse de Mars. (g.)

March and April. Gros Romain (m.), *bergamote de Pâques (m.), beurré rance. (v. g.),

April. Fondante Batave (g.), la favorite. (g.)

April and May. Muscat Allemand (m.), bezi de Caissoy. (g.) May and June. Bergamote de Pentecôte (g.), Kame lier. (m.)

4095. The best sorts of baking plums are the following:

Damson, bullace, muscle, winesour, and magnum bonum.

Of these the damson is by far the best, and next the winesour,

which thrives only on a calcareous soil, and grows wild in abundance in the West Riding of Yorkshire.

4096. The following are excellent dessert plums for an orchard: -

* Green gage, Orleans, * damask (black, good), white perdri- ditto, or imperial, drap d'or (yellow, good). Of these the gon, blue ditto, blue gage, white magnum bonum, red green gage, Orleans, and damask are much the best.

4097. Gibbs of Brompton gives the following select list of orchard fruits from his own experience:

Summer Table Apples. Early Margaret, red Astrachan, oslin, Mason's early, Kerry, yellow Ingestrie, Carter's seedling, Thorle, red Quarenden, early Ampthill pippin.

Summer Kitchen Apples. Keswick codlin, Maulden codlin, Carte's monster, French codlin, yellow harvest, Hollandbury, Autumn Table Apples. Ribston, Margall, court pendu, Downton, Newtown Spitzenburg, English peach apple,

Fearne's pippin, Wyken, Gravenstein, Ross nonpareil, pomme de neige.

Autumn Kitchen Apples. Alexander, Howbury pippin, Hawthornden, Duchess of Oldenburgh, Nelson, dominie, Blenheim orange, Dutch and French codlins (good for autumn as well as summer use).

Winter and Spring Table Apples. Scarlet nonpareil, old