and feelings, and give rise to new thoughts and principles. (Scott, Intell. Phil., ch. v. sect. 2.)

SECTION II.

If more particular illustration be sought, it can be shown, in reference to the several Springs of Action, that they are all liable to be changed in their intensity or direction, and may give place to principles that are altogether Secondary and Factitious.

Instinct, being a blind impulse, admits of little alteration; and the few acts which have been referred to Instinct in man, such as sucking and swallowing, can scarcely be characterized as virtuous or vicious, as right or wrong.

Our Appetites may operate instinctively, in the first instance; but in their future gratification, and development, and direction, they are very much under the influence of the law of Repetition. By repeated indulgence they become more frequent and imperious in their demands. Strange and artificial means are employed to gratify them; and by the growing power of Habit, a man may not only become addicted to the gross and frequent indulgence of his Implanted Appetites, but may raise up within him a host of Factitious wants, the cravings of which it may be difficult or next to impossible to deny, and the yielding to which may render his whole existence one continued alternation of indulgence and exhaustion, of excitement and prostration. Look at the victims of luxury, in reference to the Appetite of food, or the victims of intemperance, in reference to the Appetite of drink, and you may see the strange devices to which an original principle, when perverted or abused, may prompt, and the strange captivity to which a rational and responsible being may be reduced, when he allows the power of Evil Habits to acquire dominion over him. The effect of Association, too, is strikingly seen in the choice and use of articles which are selected to gratify our Appetites. Different kinds of meat and drink are relished, at different periods of life, by different classes in society, and by the inhabitants of different countries. In all this the influence of Fashion and Custom is very powerfully exhibited.

The way in which Secondary and Factitious Desires are formed is thus stated by Mr. Stewart (Phil. Hum. Mind, ch. 5, pt. ii. sect. 3): "Whatever conduces to the gratification of any Natural Appetite, or of any natural Desire, is itself desired, on account of the end to

which it is subservient; and by being thus habitually associated, in our apprehension, with agreeable objects, it frequently comes, in process of time, to be regarded as valuable in itself, independently of its utility. It is thus that wealth becomes, with many, an ultimate object of pursuit; although, at first, it is undoubtedly valued merely on account of its subserviency to the attainment of other objects.

The formation of Secondary or Factitious Desires implies the existence of Primary and Natural tendencies towards particular ends or objects. Some, indeed, have denied this, and have attempted to derive all our Desires from one general Desire of happiness or wellbeing. But the very notion of happiness implies tendency towards some object, in the attainment of which happiness consists. So that, unless there were primitive tendencies, carrying us towards particular ends, the very notion of happiness or well-being in general could not be framed.

Factitious and Secondary Desires may also arise from Desires which are Natural and Primary having received a singular direction or an excessive indulgence. The Desire of Society may degenerate into a love of frivolity and amusement, altogether at variance with its primary and proper end and use. The Desire of power, instead of manifesting itself by exercising influence over others, may degenerate into oppression and tyranny.

And, when our Natural Desires have been thwarted or crossed, they may give rise to principles very different in their tendency. Ambition, when sated or disappointed, may give place to disgust or melancholy; and the love of society may be succeeded by misanthropy and love of solitude.

The Passions are peculiarly liable, when indulged to excess, to be altered in their aspect and tendency. The Passion of love, after leading to the most absurd extravagancies, has ended in utter loathing of the beloved object. Fear, when too easily and frequently yielded to, degenerates into pusillanimity; and, instead of guarding against danger, fancies it where it is not.

Factitious and Secondary Passions may be generated in reference either, 1. To things towards which there is a Natural tendency; or, 2. To things towards which there is no Natural tendency.

1. Our Natural Feelings of the Sublime and Beautiful are not so strong nor permanent as to be called Passions. But, when frequently and vividly excited, they may acquire this form and character. And

hence we speak of a Passion for Music, a Passion for Painting, a Passion for Statuary. The germ of all these is in our Natural sense of the Sublime and Beautiful, which, by being cultivated, expands in different directions, and gives birth to principles which prompt and influence the formation of many an accomplished character, and the pursuits and enjoyments of many a happy life.

2. The characteristic of Passion is to stir and agitate the mind. The excitement may not be free from pain, but to many it is full of pleasure. Hence it is that their plan of life is adventurous and bold, and full of alternate hopes and fears. Not satisfied with the amount of uncertainty and excitement to be met with in the ordinary course of human affairs, some seek to increase it, and voluntarily expose themselves to risks from which they are naturally free, in order that they may experience that mental tumult which attends them. In this way, Gambling, Hunting, Horse-racing, and other practices and pursuits, of which some are passionately fond, may be said to arise. There is no natural nor primary tendency carrying us to these particular things. But that excitement which is incidental to the working of our Passions is awakened by them. By Repetition that excitement becomes more vivid and more necessary. Pleasing associations of various kinds gather round such practices and pursuits, and the passion for them, although Secondary and Factitious, usurps a place and obtains an attention from many, which they will not give to things of primary and paramount interest and importance.

The power of Habit and the influence of Association are very obvious in reference to the Affections.

The Malevolent Affections, when frequently or long indulged, acquire a strength and inveteracy which alter their nature and use, and cause them to extend, beyond their original object, to every person that can in any way be associated or connected with him. "A man," says Locke (Essay on Hum. Understand., book ii. ch. 33), "receives a sensible injury from another, thinks on the man and that action over and over, and by ruminating on them strongly or much in his mind, so cements these two ideas together that he makes them almost one; never thinks on the man, but the pain and displeasure he suffered come into his mind with it, so that he scarce distinguishes them, but has as much aversion for the one as the other. Thus, hatreds are often begotten upon slight and almost innocent occasions, and quarrels propagated and continued in the

world." It is in the same way that party spirit in religion, in politics, and in philosophy is engendered. And many of those unreasonable antipathies and dislikes which mar the beauty of individual character and the happiness of social life are to be accounted for in a similar way. The difference between a hasty and vindictive and a mild and placable disposition may depend, not so much on original difference of constitution and temperament, as on making a wise and happy use of the laws of Association, and turning our thoughts from what is irritating and painful to what is soothing and cheerful.

The Benevolent Affections are very much strengthened by exercise. The passive impressions may grow weaker, but the practical principles of Compassion and Charity grow stronger. If, instead of drawing fancy pictures of distress, we seek out and try to relieve the sad realities of suffering which are around us in the world, we may not shed such copious floods of tears, nor manifest so much visible emotion as those to whom these things are strange, but there will grow up in us a more quick and generous sensibility to the wants and woes of others,-a skill and success in administering to them, and a perseverance and energy, accompanied by a kindliness and dexterity, in our endeavours to mitigate and remove them, which, when compared with our first vague, and uneasy, and undirected feelings of Pity, may be called new principles of action.

Esteem and Respect, Gratitude and Friendship, are Benevolent Affections, which will be strengthened by new and repeated evidence of worth, and excellence, and kindness. But not only will these Affections grow stronger in themselves, and in reference to their proper objects, they will run over, so to speak, upon other things, and give rise to Secondary and Factitious feelings. When we highly esteem any one, we are led to value other things on account of their connection with him. The respect which we cherish towards an individual is extended to his profession or his office. Our gratitude towards our benefactor reaches to those who share his blood or participate in his kindness. Friendship is often cherished to the third or fourth generation.

The Affections of Kindred and Country are Natural—that is, they arise from the constitution of the human mind and the circumstances of the human condition; yet in their growth and development they are very much under the influence of Association and Habit. But for this influence the place of our birth, the haunts of

our youth, the scenes of our full-grown activity, and the grave of our expected rest, would have failed to touch us. Parent and guardian, kinsman and friend, might have been put far away from us without emotion; and, dull and prone as the inferior animals, we must have passed through life, looking only to the earth that was to satisfy our present and urgent wants. More dull even than the inferior animals must we have been; for they have some dim and shadowy associations, and some touch of that nobility of nature which they engender. "The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his master's crib."

The Affections of Kindred will be fully and warmly developed in one who has been the child of many anxious prayers and hopes-the representative of a long line of ancestry—the heir of large and fair possessions-the object of watchful guardianship, and who proves himself, by his honourable and virtuous success, worthy of the kindness and care which have been shown to him. On the other hand, these Affections will be chilled and checked in the case of him who has been committed from infancy to the cold and hireling care of strangers, and has had to struggle through life with the suspicion and jealousy, the rivalry and envy of others. Yet even in him the Affections of Kindred, though deprived of their natural objects, will find others upon which to fix their tendrils. The child who has never known a mother clings fondly to the bosom of the nurse who suckles him. The boy whom death has bereaved of a brother bestows a warmer affection on his chosen companion; and with him Friendship has in it somewhat of the blood-heat which belongs to the Affections of Kindred. So strong is the yearning of the human heart for objects on which to set its affections, that, in the absence of beings like himself, man will lavish his kindness upon the inferior animals; and even upon such of them as, but for the peculiar circumstances of his condition, he would have regarded with indifference or loathing. The goat and the spider are animals that do not naturally attract our regards; yet by the force of Custom they have become objects of affection to the solitary wanderer and the dungeoned captive.

Disposition is a bias or proneness to act in accordance with some principles rather than others. And when this bias is frequently yielded to, it becomes more fixed and steady, and assumes the form and power of a separate principle. Long-continued good health, a course of worldly prosperity, and the kindness and respect of friends,