From the Death of Gregory VII. to that of Boniface VIII. CHAPTER XVII. (I.) Papal history-Urban II.-Council of Placentia-that of Clermont-their principal acts-The Crusades-their origin and possible advantage-Pascal II.-Renewed disputes with Henry-his misfortunes, private and public—his death and exhumation-Henry, his son, marches to RomeConvention with Pascal respecting the regalia-its violation-Imprisonment of the Pope-his concessions-annulled by subsequent Council-Henry again at Rome-Death and character of Pascal-Final arrangement of the investiture question by Calixtus II.-Observations-The first Lateran (ninth general) Council-Death of Calixtus-Subsequent confusion and its causesArnold of Brescia-his opinions, fate, and character-Adrian IV.-Frederic Barbarossa-Disputes between them, and final success of the Pope-Alexander III.-his quarrel with Frederic, and advantages-his talents and merits-Celestine III.-The differences between Rome and the Empire-The internal dissensions at Rome on papal election-National contentions between Church and State. (II.) Education and theological learning-Review of preceding ages-in Italy and France-Parochial schools-Deficiency in the material-Papyrus-Parchment-Consequent scarcity of MSS.-Invention of paper-Three periods of theological literature-the characteristics of each-Gradual improvement in the eleventh century. CHAPTER XVIII.-Pontificate of Innocent III. Prefatory facts and observations-Circumstances under which Innocent ascended the chair-Collection of Canons-Condition of the clergy-Ecclesiastical jurisdiction-by what means extended -Innocent's four leading objects-(1.) to establish and enlarge his temporal power in the city and ecclesiastical states-Office of the Prefect-Favourable circumstance, of which Innocent avails himself-his work completed by Nicholas IV.-(2.) to establish the universal pre-eminence of papal over royal authority-His claims to the Empire-His dispute with Philippe Auguste of France-he places the kingdom under interdict-submission of Philippe-His general assertions of supremacy-particular applications of them-to England and France, Navarre, Wallachia and Bulgaria, Arragon and Armenia-His contest with John of England-Interdict-the Legate Pandulph-Humiliation of the King-(3.) to extend his authority within the church-Italian clergy in England-his general success in influencing the priesthood-Power of the Episcopal OrderThe fourth Lateran Council. Canons on transubstantiation-on private confession-against all heretics (4.) to extinguish heresy. The Petrobrussians-their author and tenets. Various other sects, how resisted. The Cathari-supposition of Mosheim and Gibbon the more probable opinion-The Waldenses-their history and character-error of Mosheim-Peter Waldus-his persecution. The Albigeois or Albigenses-their residence and opinions-attacked by Innocent-St. Dominic-title of Inquisitor-Raymond of Toulouse-holy war preached against them-Simon de Montfort-resistance and massacre of the heretics. The crusade of children-Continued persecution of the Albigeois-Death of Innocent. CHAPTER XIX.-On the Monastic System. (I.) Early instance of the monastic spirit in the east-Pliny the philosopher-The Therapeutæ or Essenes The Ascetics-their real character and origin―The earliest Christian hermits-dated from the Decian or Diocletan persecutions-Cenobites. Pachomius and St. Anthony-originated in Egypt-Basilius of Cæsarea-his order and rule-his institution of a vow questionable-Monasteries encouraged by the fathers of the fourth and fifteenth ages-from what motives-Vow of celibacy-Restrictions of admission into monastic order-Original monks were laymen-Comparative fanaticism of the east and west-Severity and discipline in the west-motives and inducements to it-contrasted with the Oriental practice-Establishment of nunneries In the east. (II.) Introduction of monachism into the west-St. Athanasius-Martin of Tours-Most ancient rule of the western monasteries-their probable paucity and poverty-Benedict of Nursia -his order, and reasonable rule, and object-Foundation of Monte Cassino-France-St. Columban-Ravages of the Lombards and Danes-Reform by Benedict of Aniane-The order of Cluni-its origin, rise, and reputation-its attachment to papacy and its prosperity-The order of Citeaux-date of its foundation-Dependent Abbey of Clairvaux-St. Bernard-its progress and X decline-Order of the Chartrenx. (III.) Order of St. Augustin-Rule of Chrodegangus-Rule of Aix-la-Chapelle-subsequent reforms. (IV.) Connexion between the monasteries and the Popemutual services-The military orders-(1.) The Knights of the Hospital-origin of their institution-their discipline and character-(2.) Knights Templar-their origin and object-(3.) The Teutonic order-its establishment and prosperity. (V.) The mendicant orders-causes of their rise and great progress-(1.) St. Dominic-his exertions and designs-(2.) St. Francis and his followers-compared with the Dominicans-apparent assimilation-essential differences-disputes of the Franciscans with the Popes, and among themselves-Inquisitorial office of the Dominicans, their learning and influence-quarrels with the Doctors of Paris-Austerity of the Franciscansthe Fratricilli-(3.) The Carmelites-their professed origin-(4.) Hermits of St. Augustin-Privileges of these four orders. (VI.) Various establishments of Nans-their usual offices and character-General remarks-The three grand orders of the Western Church (suited to the ages in which they severally appeared and flourished)-The Jesuits-The Monastic system one of perpe tual reformation-thus alone it survived so long-its merits and advantages-The bodily labour of the Monks-their charitable and hospitable offices-real piety to be found among them-supe intendence of education, and means of learning preserved by them-limits to their utility-their frequent alliance with superstition-their early dependence on the Bishops-gradual exemption, and final subjection to the Pope-Their profits and opulence, and means of amassing it-Luther a mendicant. CHAPTER XX. From the Death of Innocent III. to that of The ardour of the Popes for Crusades-its motives and policy-Honorius III.-Frederic's vow to take the cross, and procrastination-Gregory IX.-his Coronation-he excommunicates the Emperor-who thus departs for Palestine-Gregory impedes his success, and invades his dʊminions-their subsequent disputes-Innocent IV.—his previous friendship with Frederic-Council of Lyons-various charges urged against Frederic-Innocent deposes Frederic and appoints his successor on his own papal authority-Civil war in Germany-in Italy-death of Frederic-his character and conduct-his rigorous Decree against Heretics-Observations-Other reasons alleged to justify his deposition-this dispute compared with that between Gregory VII, and Henry-Taxes levied by the Pope on the Clergy-Crusade against the Emperor-Exaltation of Innocent-his visit to Italy and intrigues-his death-his qualities as a statesman-as a churchman-expression of the Sultan of Egypt-Alexander IV.-Urban IV.—Clement IV.—Introduction of Charles d'Anjou to the throne of Naples-Gregory X.-his piety, and other merits-Second Council of Lyons-Vain preparations for another Crusade-Death of Gregory-Objects of Nicholas II.-Martin IV.-Senator of Rome-Nicholas IV. diligent against Heresy-Pietro di Morone or Celestine V.-circumstances of his elevation-his previous life and habits-his singular incapacity-disaffection among the higher Clergy-his discontent and meditations-his resignationBoniface VIII.-his excessive ambition and insolence-on the decline of the papal power-his temporal pretensions-Sardinia, Corsica, Scotland, Hungary-Recognition of Albert King of the Romans-and act of his submission-Philip the Fair-The Gallican Church-origin of its liberties -St. Louis and the Pragmatic Sanction-Differences between Boniface and Philip-Bull Clericis Laicos-its substance and subsequent interpretation-Affairs of the Bishop of Parmiers-Bull Ausculta Fili-burnt by Philip-Conduct of the French Nobles-of the Clergy-of Boniface. Bull Unam Sanctam-other violent proceedings-Moderation of Philip-further insolence of the Pope -Philip's appeal to a General Council-William of Nogaret-Personal assault on Boniface-his behaviour and the circumstances of his death. CHAPTER XXI. On Louis IX. of France-his religious and ecclesiastical acts and projects-On the origin and establishment of the Inquisition-On some of the principal effects of the Crusades-The Pragmatic Sanction, and the Liberties of the Gallican Church. CHAPTER XVII. From Gregory VII. to Innocent III. THE death of Gregory did not restore either concord to the Church or repose to the Empire. The successor, whom at the solicitation of his cardinals, he nominated on his death-bed, testified a singular, but sincere, repugnance for a dignity, which being probably too feeble to sustain, he was too wise to desire. Desiderius *, Abbot of Mount Cassino, held for a short period, under the name of Victor III., a disputed rule; and on his early death in the year 1087, Urban II., a native of France, was proclaimed in his place. But Clement the Antipope was still in possession of the capital, where the imperial party was triumphant, and five years of dissension† intervened before the authority of Urban was generally acknowledged. That Pope had been a monk of Clugni, and owed his preferment to the See of Ostia to the favour of Gregory; and he continued to the end of his life to exhibit his fidelity by following, as far as his talents permitted him, the schemes which had been traced by his patron. Of the numerous councils held during his pontificate two are entitled to particular attention-those of Placentia and Clermont‡: in both of these he confirmed the laws and asserted the Urban II. principles of Gregory, and carried his favourite claims to their full extent; for by the fifteenth canon of the latter he enacted, that no ecclesiastic shall receive any church dignity from the hand of a layman, or pay him liege homage for it; and that no prince shall give the investiture §.' But that council is recommended to general history by other and more important recollections. And while at Placentia the final sanction was given to the two strongest characteristics in the doctrine and in the discipline of the Roman Church—namely ||, tran * His disinclination for the dangerous honour is said to have been so great, that he was actually dragged to the Church, and forcibly invested with the pontifical garments. Fleury, H. E., liv. lxiii., sect. 25 and 27. But this circumstance is not mentioned by Pagi; though, on the authority of Leo Ostiensis, he bears ample testimony to Victor's reluctance. The only remarkable acts of personal hostility which these two rivals appear to have exchanged, was a satiric taunt couched on either side in a pair of very innocent hexameters. Clement, insolent in the possession of the city, wrote to his rusticating adversary as follows: Diceris Urbanus, cum sis projectus ab Urbe ; To this Urban replied, Clemens nomen habes, sed Clemens non potes esse, Hist. Litt. de la France. Both were held in 1095-the former on March 1, the latter on November 18. At the former were present two hundred bishops, nearly four thousand of the inferior clergy, and more than thirty thousand of the laity; so that the assemblies were held in the open air. The latter appears to have been still more numerously attended. See Fleury, H. E., liv. lxiv., sect. 22. Hist. Litt. de la France. Ne episcopus vel sacerdos regi vel alicui laico in manibus ligiam fidelitatem faciat.' See Mosheim, Cent. xi. p. ii. c. ii. Fleury, liv. lxiv., sect. 29. Hist. Litt. de la France. Vie de Berenger. Fleury, loc. cit. The question regarding the ordination of the sons of presbyters, which was warmly debated about this substantiation and the celibacy of the clergy, it was the Council of Clermont which first sounded that blast of fanaticism which shook the whole fabric of society, from the extremities of the west even to the heart of Asia, for above two centuries. It may seem strange that the sanguinary project of launching the power of Christendom in one vast armament against the MaOrigin of the hometan conquerors of the Holy Land should first have Crusades. been proposed by a Pope, who was celebrated for his studious cultivation of the noblest arts of peace. It was Sylvester II.* with whom the scheme of a general crusade originated.; but to him it may have been suggested by personal observation of the sufferings of Spain and the humiliation of the Christian name. And to any one beholding and deploring the various disorders of Europe-the fierce contentions of kings with each other, their more fatal dissensions with their subjects, the military license which everywhere prevailed and forbade all security of person or property-it might have seemed an act of comparative mercy to unite those discordant spirits even by the rudest tie, and to divert against a common foe the turbulence which engaged them in mutual destruction. The same measure was not without some justification in prudence; since the slightest caprice of a Saracen conqueror might have directed his rage against Christendom, and especially against Italy, the most attractive, the most exposed, the least defensible province the centre of the Christian Church, and, as it were, the Palestine of the West. These and similar considerations may have recommended the same project to a much greater mind than that of Sylvester; for it was also (as has been mentioned) a favourite design of Gregory VII., who proposed personally to conduct against the infidel the universal army of Christ. It was realized by Urban II.; and his exhortations to time, was set at rest by the Council of Clermont. It was conceded, that with dispensation from the Pope they might be admitted to Holy Orders. Pagi (Vit. Urban. II., sect. 43.) ascribes to this period the practice of administering the Eucharist to the laity under one species only, which, he adds, became more confirmed, after the establishment of the kingdom of Jerusalem by the crusaders; for in that Church (he maintains) it has existed from primitive times. We may also mention in this place, that the Office of the Holy Virgin,' though perhaps not composed by Urban, was brought into more general use during his pontificate. * It will be recollected that Sylvester, as well as Urban and his agent Peter the Hermit, was a Frenchman. So that the entire credit of the scheme, both of its invention and the bringing it into practice, belongs, such as it is, to that enthusiastic and inconsiderate people. It is a remark of Gibbon, that at the council of Placentia, in Italy, the people wept over the calamities of the Christians of the East-while at Clermont, in France, they took up arms to avenge them. The Pope closed the session of the council by a sermon, which has been variously reported by different writers. Fleury gives the following sentences as a part of it, on the authority of William of Tyre, a grave and judicious author: '-'Do you then, my dear children, arm yourselves with the zeal of God; march to the succour of our brethren, and the Lord be with you. Turn against the enemy of the Christian name the arms which you employ in injuring each other. Redeem, by a service so agreeable to God your pillages, conflagrations, homicides, and other mortal crimes, so as to 'obtain his ready pardon. We exhort you and enjoin you, for the remission of your sins, to have pity on the affliction of our brethren in Jerusalem, and to repress the 'insolence of the infidels, who propose to subjugate kingdoms and empires, and to extinguish the name of Christ. Hist. Eccl., Liv. Ixiv., sect. 32. As the populace devoutly believed the Pope's assurance, that the pilgrimage would atone for the most abominable crimes, the immediate effect of the crusade might be to rid Europe of the refuse of its population; just as the certain consequence would be the encouragement of crime, when the method of atonement was always at hand. |