Fleischer, m. butcher; Müller, m. miller; Der Brauer hat Wein, Sie haben Kaffee, und ich habe Wasser. Das Pferd hat Heu, das Kind hat Brod, und das Mädchen hat Thee. Nein, no; Nur, only; Sie, you; Thee, m. tea; Wasser, n. water; The brewer has wine, you have coffee, and I have water. The horse has hay, the child has bread, and the girl has tea. 1. Wer hat Brod? 2. Der Bäcker hat Brod. 3. Hat der Bäcker Mehl. 4. Ja, er hat auch Mehl. 5. Was hat der Müller? 6. Der Müller hat Mehl und Korn. 7. Wer hat Fleisch? 8. Der Fleischer hat Fleisch. 9. Haben Sie Bier? 10. Nein, der Brauer hat Bier. 11. Haben Sie Wein? 12. Nein, ich habe Kaffee. 13. Was hat das Måd. chen? 14. Das Mädchen hat Thee. 15. Hat der Brauer Korn? 16. Nein, er hat nur Bier und Wein. 17. Was hat das Kind? 18. Es hat Wasser. 19 Hat es auch Brod? 20. Ja, es hat Brod und auch Fleisch. QUESTIONS. 1. What is said of the definite Article in German? 2. Of the gender of German nouns? 3. What is the masculine form of the definite article in the nominative singular? 4. What is the neuter form? 5. What is the substance of the Observation? SECTION V. All German verbs are conjugated interrogatively, in the present and imperfect tenses, like have and be in English; that is, by placing the verb before its subject, without an auxiliary. Ex.: Haben Sie das Buch? Lesen Sie das Buch? Ift er hier? Wohnt er hier? Hatte er den Brief? Schrieb er den Brief? War er hier? Wohnte er hier? Have you the book? 1. Lieben Sie das Kind, oder den Mann? 2. Ich liebe das Kind. 3. Haben Sie den Zucker? 4. Nein, das Kind hat den Zucker. 5. Liebt das find das Märchen? 6. Ja, und das Mädchen liebt das Kind. 7. Wer hat das Glas? 8. Das Kind hat das Glas. 9. Hat der Brauer den 11 Wer hat das Bier? 13. Hat der Müller das 15. Hat der Bäcker den wagen? 10. Nein, der Bauer hat den Wagen. QUESTIONS. How are German verbs conjugated interrogatively? 2. What English verbs are generally thus conjugated? What is the form of the article in the accusative masculine? 3. 4. What in the accusative neuter? Of the four cases, the dative without a preposition, generally corresponds to our objective governed by to or for. Ex.: Sh gebe dem Manne das Glas, I give (to) the man the glass. Er macht dem Manne einen Hut, he makes (for) the man a hat. Often, Read you the book? (Do you read the book?) however, the dative, in German, is construed with a preposition, where, as above, the objective is of course employed in English. Ex.: Is he here? Resides he here? (Does he reside here ?) Had he the letter? Das Kind ist in dem Hause, the child is in the house. Wrote he the letter? (Did he write the letter?) Der Hund ist unter dem Baume, the dog is under the tree. Was he here? Resided he here? (Did he reside here?) Der Jäger geht nach dem Walce, the hunter goes to the forest. Der Mann ist auf dem Schiffe, the man is on the ship. Der Koch ist an dem Tische, the cook is at the table. DECLENSION OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE MASCULINE AND NEUTER IN THE SINGULAR. Sie lieben, you love; Er liebt, he loves; DEFINITE ARTICLE lieben Sie? love you? (Do you love?) loves he? (Does he love?) liebt er? MASCULINE AND NEUTER IN THE NOMI NATIVE AND ACCUSATIVE. German nouns have two forms of declension, called the Old and the New. In the old declension, the genitive, like the corresponding case in English, is formed by affixing to the nominative. Ex.: Nom. der Vater, the father; Gen. des Vaters, the father's. Nouns ending in 8, fi, 3, or two consonants, generally add in the genitive; thus, like our words which end with the sound of s, x, z, soft c or s, forming an additional syllable. Ex.: Nem. tas Res, the horse; Gen. des Roses, the horse's. RULES FOR FORMING THE CASES OF NOUNS ACCORDING TO RULE I. The genitive adds s or es to the nominative. DECLENSION OF NOUNS ADDING Masculine. N. Der Vater, the father; G. Des Vaters, the father's; IN THE GENITIVE. das Märchen, the girl; D. Dem Bater, to, for the father; bem Mädchen, to, for the girl; das Mädchen, the girl. A. Den Vater, the father; DECLENSION OF NOUNS Masculine. N. Der Mann, the man, ADDING 8 IN THE GENITIVE. das Kind, the child; dem Kinde, to, for the child; 1. Sind Sie der Freund des Bäckers? 2. Nein, ich bin der Freund des Tischlers. 3. Was hat der Freund des Fleischers? 4. Er hat den Hund und das Pferd des Bauers. 5. Wo ist das Mehl. 6. Es ist in dent Sacke des Müllers. 7. Wo ist das Korn? 8. Es ist in dem Korbe des Bauers. 9. Wer licht den Lehrer? 10. Der Schüler liebt den Lehrer. 11. Sind Sie schläfrig? 12. Nein, ich bin durftig. 13. Wo ist der Ball des Bruders? 14. Das Kind hat den Ball des Bruders in dem Hute des Vaters. 15. Wo ist das Pferd des Lehrers? 16. Es ist in dem Stalle. 17. Lobt der Tischler den Zimmermann? 18. Nein, der Sohn bes 3immermanns lobt den Sohn des Lehrers. 19. Wo ist der Stuhl des Tischlers? 20. Gr (Sect. 18. III.) ist in dem Zimmer des Lehrers. 21. Liebt der Zimmermann den Lehrer? 22. Ja, er liebt und lobt den Lehrer. 23. Der Mann ist an dem Tische, das Buch ist auf dem Tische, und der Hund ist unter dem Tische. QUESTIONS. 1. How many cases are there in German? 2. To which of these cases are there corresponding ones in English? SINGULAR OF Sein AND Loben. 3. How is the dative supplied in English? 4. How is the ich lobe, I praise; Sie loben, you praise; er lobt, he praises. genitive formed in the old declension? 5. How the dative? 6. What is the form of the dative when the genitive adds es? 7. What when it adds only ? 8. What analogy between the declension of German and English nouns? 9. Can you state the substance of the preceding note? LESSONS IN PHYSIOLOGY.-No. VI. MAN. PERSPIRATION or breathing, is common to all organised beings. If you attempt to hold your breath for even a few seconds of time, you have a peculiar feeling of distress, which so increases as to prompt and force the respiratory movement. If at such a moment anything were to prevent the free admission of air to the lungs, not only would the breathing be difficult, but the most violent effort would be made to get the needed supply of air; and if such supply could not be obtained, there would come on irregular convulsive actions:-these would be followed by insensibility:-within a short time all movement would cease; the circulation of the blood would be arrested, and a stop be put to all the living operations of the body. Keep this fact, then, in your memory-that the process of respiration or healthy breathing, essentially consists of an interchange of oxygen and carbonic acid, and this interchange takes place between the blood, as it passes into the lungs, and the surrounding external atmosphere. Carbonic acid is given out by the blood while the oxygen enters by the air which we breathe. The number of air-cells in the human lungs has been computed at six hundred millions, and their diameter varies from 6th to the 5th of an inch. In their structure, the lungs possess considerable elasticity, which gives them the power of contraction and dilatation. If you stand before a dressing runs across the body in an oblique form, and completely sepa- in an atmosphere of oxygen, and the surface of the venous rates the contents of the chest from the contents of the abdo- blood will be found to take on the bright arterial hue. How men or belly. It is convex above, and concave below. Now is this effected? The carbonic acid of the blood, and the surwhen we inspire or take a breath, this muscle changes its upper rounding oxygen will overcome by their mutual attraction the surface from the form of a high arch to nearly a plane surface, obstacle offered by the bladder, and as the carbonic acid leaves and the ribs being raised by other muscles, the cavity of the the blood, its place will be filled up by the oxygen. The chest is thus enlarged and affords room for the expansion or oxygen that passes inwards exceeds the carbonic acid that dilatation of the lungs. In again giving back our breath, the passes outwards in the proportion of 1,174 to 1,000. Now if diaphragm assumes its former arch-like form, the ribs contract the lungs throw off only 1,000 out of this 1,174, in the form of or draw closer together, and thus the cavity of the chest is carbonic acid, what becomes of the remaining 174? It is supdiminished. It follows that the air in the lungs is to a certain posed that part of this enters into combination with the suldegree exchanged with every successive breath, and differs in phur and phosphorus found in the original elements of the quantity. The following facts are worthy of attention and body, and passes off in the form of sulphuric and phosphoric remembrance :acid, and the rest is evaporated in the form of moisture from the lungs. In the case of healthy young and middle-aged men, the quantity of air that is changed in the lungs in each act of ordinary tranquil breathing, is from twenty to twenty-five cubic inches. Each individual draws his breath, upon an average, eighteen times every minute; at each respiration or breathing, a pint of air is introduced into the lungs, making eighteen pints in a minute, upwards of two hogsheads in an hour, and more than fifty-seven in the twenty-four hours. In taking a very deep, full breath, we may completely fill the lungs, but in letting our breath go back, we can never empty them. This would be fatal to life. What we give back is not more than one-fifth of what we retain. That is to say, if we give up twenty cubic inches in the act of expiration, there will be one hundred cubic inches still remaining in these organs. To meet and appropriate the immense volume of air which we take in at every breath, the heart sends to the lungs at each If the state of the blood conditions and determines all the functions of the body, and if the atmosphere which surrounds us, and which we are constantly inhaling, be the grand purifier and regenerator of the blood, then these two things follow : FIRST. That nothing is more essential to health and life than good air. The atmosphere may be so deteriorated and poisoned as to be fatal to both. For example:-carbonic acid is formed and given off with great rapidity after death, both in the plant and in the animal, and, therefore, all animal and vegetable substance in a state of decomposition or decay, should be at once removed from our dwellings, nor be suffered to have a place in the neighbourhood of living men. It gives birth to disease;-the evil spreads-and pestilence and death assert their reign. We should study habits of cleanliness. We should make a free use of soap and water, and remove ourselves to the farthest possible distance from all impurity and filth. We should select the best-aired neighbourhood for our dwelling, and every day breathe a pure atmosphere. The blood freed from its excess of carbon, and supplied with fresh oxygen from the inspired air, will bound through the system with unchecked activity, and make the whole man as elastic and buoyant as an angel's wing. SECONDLY.-Care should be taken that nothing is allowed to interfere with the free play of the lungs. It is a most painful fact that in our country, some sixty thousand of the population--and these chiefly among the young and the most gifted -annually fall victims to pulmonary consumption or disease of the lungs. It is the disease of England:-and yet thousands might be saved. The physical education of man has been too much and too long overlooked. The gymnastic exercises through which children go, not only aid in the development of the bodily frame, but tend very much to give an impulse and even an additional force to mental activity. The children of those schools in which physical training is combined with mental and moral instruction, will ever be found more healthy, more active, and more disposed to apply themselves to their duties. And, therefore, next to the healthy structure of the lungs themselves, are those exercises which favour the free expansion of the chest. If grief and fear, and other depressing passions of the mind, retard the circulation, impair respiration, lower vitality, and render the body more susceptible of disease, then it becomes a duty to cherish all those emotions which will call into exercise our physical powers and functions. There is true philosophy in a good laugh, and it contributes to This engraving shows on the left one of the Lungs, with its numberless air-health; so does singing, cheerful conversation, good society, cells, and on the right those beautiful little blood-vessels which ramify in the lungs, and so bring the blood into contact with the air which we breathe. pulsation two ounces of blood, that is, one hundred and fortysix ounces, or above a gallon, every minute, four hundred and eighty pints in an hour, or rather more than eleven thousand pints in twenty-four hours. To ensure the air in the remoter cells being renewed, there comes into play the law of MUTUAL DIFFUSION, which is common to all gaseous substances that do not unite chemically with each other. It is according to this law that there takes place an interchange of oxygen and carbonic acid between the air and the blood in the lungs. Between the blood and the air in the lungs there is nothing but a very thin or delicate membrane. This membrane interferes not with the law of mutual diffusion, as may be proved from the following experiment. Fill a bladder with venous blood, suspend the bladder and whatever can excite the more pleasurable feelings of the soul. It is true that we cannot always be gay and merry; still we may give attention to health. Pure air is essential to life, and what is more invigorating than a good walk into the open field of Nature?-or, if we cannot always get abroad, "the lungs may be exercised indirectly by such kinds of bodily or muscular exertion as require quicker and deeper breathing; and directly, by the employment of the voice in speaking, reading aloud, crying, or singing. In general, both ought to be conjoined. But where the chief object is to improve the lungs, those kinds which have a tendency to expand the chest, and call the organs of respiration into play, are to be especially preferred. Rowing a boat, fencing, quoits, shuttlecock, and the proper use of the skipping-rope, dumb-bells, and gymnastics are of this description. All of them employ actively the muscles of the chest and trunk, and excite the lungs themselves to freer and fuller expansion." It matters little what be the mode of exercise, so that it amount to a real recreation. But you ask what degree of exercise should be taken for the purpose of preserving health, or to what point should it be carried? Our answer is, till you begin to perspire or are in a sweat. This is a sure test that exercise has answered its purpose. We shall discover the truth of this when we come to speak of the important functions of the skin. THE PROCESS OF SECRETION. Just as the blood contains within itself the materials which are required for the renovation of the solid tissues, there are certain substances produced by the decay of these solid tissues which require to be separated from the blood, and thrown off from the body. In this sense, SECRETION is only another term for SEPARATION. For example :-respiration may be regarded as belonging to the process of secretion, inasmuch as in the act of breathing, we throw off a certain quantity of carbonic acid, which could not be retained in the blood without the most injurious consequences. Its retention even for a few minutes would be fatal to life. For effecting the chief secretions of the body, we have a set of special organs named GLANDS. A secreting gland consists essentially of an assemblage of small cavities in communication with the cutaneous surface, where the secretion is poured out. In other words, a true gland consists of a closely-packed collection of follicles, or small open cells, disposed in clusters at the extremity of the secreting canal, and all of which open into a common channel, from which the product passes by one or more execretory ducts or passages. These organs are divided ded into conglomerate or inferior glands, such as the salivary, lachrymal, mammary, pancreatic, and prostrate glands, and into visceral or superior glands, including the liver, the kidneys, the urethra, and kindred organs. The apparatus for the secretion of the gastric juice in the human stomach, is an arrangement of complex follicles, as may be seen from the annexed engraving. This apparatus never attains any higher condition. The follicles or little cavities are lodged in the walls of the stomach, and by separate openings pour their contents into it to mingle with the food in the process of digestion. The LIVER, in some form or other, is found in all but the very lowest members of the animal kingdom. It is situated in the human body under the diaphragm, and in the right side. Ita figure is convex above, and concave below, and its substance is of a dusky reddish colour. It is divided into two lobes or distinct parts, and on the under surface of the right or great lobe, there are three smaller lobes. It is held in its place by a certain number of ligaments, and by the vessels which enter it and go out from it, the liver is one of the most important organs of the human body. All the veins of the stomach, b of the intestines, of the spleen, of the pancreas, and of the omenta or coverings of the intes b PORTA of the liver. This shares with the lungs the office of removing a certain portion of the carbon which has entered into the vital and life-giving fluid. It acts as Nature's aperient or purgative medicine. The regular relief of the bowels depends on the liver doing its duty, and nothing is so good to set the liver at work as exercise. It is a fact, that exercise promotes the circulation of the blood, and this circulation affects the secretion of the bile. When the blood flows with strength and rapidity, a much greater quantity is sent into the liver in a given time, and hence the quantity of bile secreted is much larger. It is on this principle that we explain the excess of bile in those who live in hot climates, and especially in cases of fever. Be assured that the best way to take medicine is to take exercise. Nature will do for you more than the doctor. You will need neither antibilious nor digestive pills. Health and length of days will be your reward. In His boundless love, has the Creator thus placed life and health in our keeping, and so arranged the laws of our whole being, that we may convert this world and our existence into a never-failing source of happiness and delight. The air which we breathe, the food which we eat, the duties which we perform, the exercise which we take, are all adapted to minister to our enjoyment. It is a grand thing to have a sound mind in a sound body; and in proportion to the health, vigour, and activity of the physical system, will be the freedom and the force of the intellectual power. QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. What do you mean by respiration, or the process of healthy breathing? How many air-cells are there in the human lungs, and what is their diameter ? How do you prove that the lungs have the power of expansion and contraction? What is the diaphragm ?-how is it situated?-and what does it separate? Can you state the quantity of air that is changed in the lungs in each act of ordinary tranquil breathing? How much air do we inspire in a minute, in an hour, in a whole day? What purpose does the air serve in the lungs ? How much blood does the heart send to the lungs at each pulsation, and to what does this amount in twenty-four hours? What do you understand by the law of mutual diffusion? Give an example of this law. What influence has good air on health and life? Why should nothing be allowed to interfere with the free play of the lungs ? To what point should exercise be carried to keep health? Give an example of this process in connexion with the lungs Is the liver found in all members of the animal kingdom? LESSONS IN FRENCH.-No. XI. By Professor LOUIS FASQUELLE, LL.D. Est-ce que je vends du drap? Est-ce que je joue souvent ? Do I sell cloth? Do I play often? tines, meet in one great tive of almost all those French verbs, which in that person 1. In the first person singular of the present of the indicavein called the VENA have only one syllable, the common interrogative form [Sect. large vein is thus filled 22. 9] is not allowed. To render the verb interrogative, the with venous blood, and expression est-ce que is prefixed to the affirmative form [§ 98, from this venous blood (5) (6)]. the bile is secreted. Now bile fulfils three important functions in the human system. It aids the process of digestion as the food passes from the stomach into the duodenum, and in connexion with some other juices, converts the chyme into chyle. Connexion of the lobules of the liver with its great vein :-a represents the trunk of the vein; and bbb the lobules depending from its branches 1.ke leaves on a tree. It carries of impuritics from the blood, inasmuch as it 2. The first person singular of the indicative of avoir, to have; être, to be; aller, to go; pouvoir, to be able; devoir, to owe; savoir, to know, etc., may, however, be conjugated interrogatively according to the general rules. Ai-je vos mouchoirs? Combien vous dois-je ? Have I your handkerchiefs? How much do I owe you? 3. The form est-ce que is always allowable, and sometimes preferable, when the first person singular of the present of the | 24. Envoyez vous ce billet à la poste. 25. Je l'envoie à son indicative of a verb has several syliables [§ 98, (6)]. adresse. Allez vous? Vont ils? I ENVOYER, to send. Est-ce que j'envoie? do VENIR, to come. Est-ce que je viens? do Viens-tu ? EXERCISE 48. 1. Do I wear my large black hat? 2. You wear a handsome green hat. 3. Does the banker go to the hair-dresser's this morning? 4. He goes there this morning. 5. Does he intend to go to the bank this morning? 6. He does not intend to go there, he has no time. 7. Do you send your letters to the post-office? 8. I do not send them, they are not yet written (écrites). 9. Do I send you a note? 10. You send me a ticket, but I have no wish to go to the concert. 11. Does your brother go to school to-morrow? 12. He goes (there) to-day, and remains at home to-morrow. 13. Do I go there? 14. You do not go anywhere. 15. Where do you go? 16. 1 am going to your brothers, is he at home? 17. He is not at home, he is absent since yesterday. 18. Does your brother live in this village? 19. He does not [Sect. 23. 12], he lives at my nephew's. 20. Are you wrong to go to school? 21. No, Sir, 1 am right to go to church and to school. 22. Do you wish to come to my house? 23. I like to go to your 6. The article le, preceded by the proposition à is contracted into au before a noun masculine commencing with a conso-house, and to your brother's. 24. When are you coming to nant, or an aspirate; and into aux before a plural noun. [§ 13, (8)]. Est-ce que je vais à l'école ? Est-ce-que je parle anglais ? Allez vous au marché demain ? Ils sont quelque part. Ils ne sont nulle part. Est-ce que je demeure chez vous? Est-ce que je mange trop? Absent, e, absent. Adresse, f. address. Banque, f bank. Banquier, m banker. Billet, m. note. Chapelier, m. hatter. Concert, m. concert. Couper, 1. to cut. Do I go to school? You go to church to-day. Do I begin my work? Do I speak English? Do I send this book to my brother 1 Do you go to market to-morrow? I send them there this afternoon. They are nowhere. Do I live at your house? 1. Où est-ce que je vais? 2. Vous allez chez le chapelier. 3. Est-ce que je vais à la banque? 4. Vous allez à la banque et au concert. 5. Est-ce que je coupe votre bois? 6. Vous ne coupez ni mon bois ni mon habit. 7. Est-ce que je porte un chapeau vert? 8. Vous ne portez pas un chapeau vert, vous en portez un noir. 9. Votre écolier va-t-il quelque part? 10. Il va à l'église, à l'école et au marché. 11. Ne va-t-il pas chez le perruquier? 12. Il ne va nulle part. 13. Ne portez vous point des bottes de cuir rouge? 14. J'en porte de cuir noir. 15. N'allez vouz pas chez le banquier? 16. Je ne vais pas chez lui, il est absent depuis hier. 17. Vient il à la banque ce matin? 18. Il a l'intention d'y venir, s'il a le temps.* 19. A-t-il envie d'aller au concert? 20. I a grande envie d'y aller, mais il n'a pas de billet. 21. Demeurez vous dans ce village? 22. Oui, Monsieur, j'y demeure. The i of ei is elided before 11, ils, but in no other case. This is the only instance of the elision of i. our house? 25. To-morrow, if I have time. 26. Does the banker like to come here? 27. He likes to come to your house. 28. Is the hair-dresser coming? 29. He is not yet coming. 30. What are you sending to the scholar 31. 1 am sending books, paper, and clothes. 32. Where is he? 33. He is at school. 34. Is the school in the village? 35. It is there. SECTION XXV. 1. The verb aller, is used, in French, in the same manner as the verb to go, in English, to indicate a proximate future. Allez vous écrire ce matin? Je vais écrire mes lettres. Are you going to write this morning? I am going to write my letters. 2. The verb venir is used idiomatically, in French, to indicate a past just elapsed. It requires, in this signification, the preposition de before another verb. 4. Aller chercher, means to go for, to go and fetch :Allez chercher le médecin. Je vais chercher du sucre et du café. Go and fetch the physician. I am going for coffee and sugar. send for, to send and fetch :— Send for the merchant. I send for vegetables. 6. The first and second persons of the plural of the imperative are, with few exceptions, the same as the corresponding persons of the present of the indicative. The pronouns nous, vous, are not used with the imperative. 7. PLURAL OF THE IMPERATIVE OF ALLER, ENVOYER, Allons, let us go. Allez, go. Venons, let us come Venez, come. 8. Tous, m. toutes, f. followed by the article les and plural noun, are used in French in the same sense as the word every in English. Your brother comes every day. You go to school every morning. Votre frère vient tous les jours. Vous allez à l'école tous les matins. 9. Tout, m. toute, f. followed by le or la and the noun in the singular, are used for the English expression the whole coming before a noun. Il reste ici toute la journée, He remains here the whole day. 10. A day of the week or of the month, pointed out as the time of an appointment or of an occurrence, is not preceded by a preposition in French. Venez lundi ou mardi. Venez le quinze ou le seize avril. Come on Monday or Tuesday. 11. When the occurrence is a periodical or customary one, |