118 Antiquity of the Noria. [Book I. human population became dense, then animal labor was in some degree superseded by that of man. The extensive employment of the latter, appears to have been a prominent feature in the political economy of ancient Egypt, just as it is in modern China. As the country teemed with inhabitants, the extensive use of animal labor would not only have interfered with the means of the great mass of the former in obtaining a living, but would have required too large a portion of the land to raise food merely for the latter. The antiquity of the noria may be inferred from its name of " Egyptian wheel," the only one by which it was known in some countries. It is to be found if we mistake not, among the symbols of ancient mythology. In elucidating one of the religious precepts of Numa, which required persons when worshipping in the temples, to turn round; Plutarch observes, that this change of posture may have an enigmatical meaning, “like the EGYPTIAN WHEELS, admonishing us of the instability of every thing human, and preparing us to acquiesce and rest satisfied with whatever turns and changes the divine being may allot." Life of Numa. This figurative application of the noria, is obviously used by Plutarch as a common and consequently a long established symbol of the mutability of human affairs; and, as the sentiment which he illustrates by it, is precisely the same as that which the wheel of the goddess of fortune was designed to point out, the " instability of fortune," and of which it was the emblem, we conclude that the "wheel of fortune," was a water wheel, and no other than the NORIA; and that to it, the Grecian philosopher in the above passage referred. The selection of an Egyptian wheel to denote the mutability of human affairs, indicates the origin not only of Plutarch's similitude, but also that of the fable of the goddess. Egypt was the source whence the Greeks obtained not only their arts and science, but also their mythology, with its deities, heroes and its mysterious system of symbolical imagery; and if the Egyptians were not the inventors of the system of representing and concealing things by symbols, they certainly carried it to a greater extent than any other people, and at a period long before the Greeks had emerged from barbarism, or an Egyptian colony had settled in their country. Although we are not aware that the wheel of fortune had any other signification, yet, as the same goddess presided over RICHES AND ABUNDANCE a more expressive emblem of these in EGYPT could not have been devised. Agriculture was the grand source of wealth in that country, and it depended almost entirely upon artificial irrigation, for except during the annual inundation of the Nile, water was raised for that purpose by machines, and among these, the noria was one of the most prominent, and probably one of the most ancient. Egypt without irrigation would have been a dreary waste, and like its neighboring deserts uninhabited by man; but by means of it, the soil became so exceedingly fertile that Egypt became "the garden of the east,"-the "hot bed of nature," and the granary of the world." It was artificial irrigation which, under the Pharaohs, produced food for seventeen millions of inhabitants, and in the reign of Rameses or Sesostris, a surplus sufficient for thirty-three millions more; and even under the Grecian yoke, when its ancient glory had long departed, the prodigious quantities of grain, which it produced, enabled Ptolemy Philadelphus to amass treasure equal to nine hundred and fifty millions of dollars. There was therefore a peculiar propriety, whether designed or not, in the goddess of "prosperity," "riches," and abundance," being accompanied with the noria or Egyptian wheel, the imple 66 Chap. 14.] Ancient emblems of Irrigation. 119 ment which contributed so greatly to produce them. The manner in which this deity was sometimes represented, appears to have had direct reference to agriculture and irrigation. She was seated on rocks, (emblems of sterility ?) the wheel by her side and a river at her feet, (to signify irrigation?) and she held wheat ears, and flowers in her hand. But whether the ancient Egyptians adopted the noria or not, as the emblem of wealth and irrigation, one of their most favorite symbols has direct reference to the latter, and indirectly to the former: viz. the SPHINX; figures of which have been found among the ruins, from one end of the country to the other. This figure consists, as is universally known, of the the head and breasts of a woman, united to the body of a lion, and was symbolical of the annual overflow of the Nile, which occurred when the sun passed through the zodiacal signs, Leo and Virgo-hence the combination of these signs in the Sphinx, as an emblem of that general irrigation of the land once a year, upon which their prosperity so greatly depended. This was the origin of passing streams of water through the mouths of figures of lions, and sometimes, though more rarely, of virgins, as in the figures below-which are taken from Rivius' translation of Vitruvius. No. 52. Orifices of Pipes, &c. symbolical of Irrigation. The analogy between the form and ornaments of an object and its uses, seems to have always been kept in view by the ancients; although, from our imperfect knowledge of them, it is difficult and sometimes impossible to perceive it. That they displayed unrivaled skill in some of their designs and decorations is universally admitted. There is certainly no natural analogy between a lion and a fountain, and no obvious propriety in making water to flow out of the mouths of figures of these animals; on the contrary, they appear to be very inappropriate; but when we learn that the lion as an astronomical symbol, was intimately associated with a great natural hydraulic operation, of the first importance to the welfare of the Egyptians, we perceive at once their reasons for transferring figures of it to artificial discharges of the liquid, and hence the orifices of cocks, pipes, and spouts of gutters, fountains, &c. were decorated as above. In some ancient fountains, figures of virgins, as nymphs of springs, leaned upon urns of running water. In others, VASES overturned, (with figures of Aquarius, Oceanus, &c.) a beautiful device. Lions' heads for spouts are very common in Pompeii. There is another ancient emblem, and one that is universally admired, which may here be noticed, as its origin is associated with artificial irrigation the CORNUCOPIA, or 'Horn of Abundance.' This elegant symbol is probably of Egyptian origin, for Isis was sometimes represented with it, and Isis, in the Egyptian language, signified the 'cause of abundance.' We have already seen that irrigation was and still is, the principal source of plenty in Egypt; and water in the scriptures is repeatedly used in the same sense. To understand the allegory, it must be borne in mind that rivers were anciently compared to bulls; the reasons for which at this remote period, are not very obvious; perhaps among others, from the noise 120 Medea: Ancient Vapor Baths. [Book I. of rapid streams, bearing some resembance at a distance, to the lowing and bellowing of these animals; and the branches of rivers were compared to their horns; thus, the small branch of the Bosphorus, which forms the harbor of Constantinople, still retains its ancient name of the Golden Horn;' and in some of our dictionaries, winding streams' is given as one of the definitions of horns. The bull which is common on some Greek coins is supposed to have been the symbol of a river, perhaps from the overflow of some, when the sun passed through the zodiacal sign Taurus. According to the Greek version, one of the branches of the river Achelous in Epirus, was diverted or broken off by Hercules, to irrigate some parched land in its vicinity. This, like other labors of that hero, was allegorized by representing him engaged in conflict with a bull, (Achelous) whom he overcame, and broke off one of his horns; and this horn being filled with fruits and flowers, was emblematical of the subse quent fertility of the soil. Ovid describes the contest, when that hero 'twixt rage and scorn, From his maimed front, he tore the stubborn horn, This, heap'd with flowers and fruits, the Naiads bear, But Achelous in his oozy bed Deep hides his brow deform'd, and rustic head, No real wound the victor's triumph show'd, But his lost honors griev'd the watery god. Met. ix. Thus river gods were sometimes represented with a cornucopia in one hand, and the other resting on a vase of flowing water. Another interesting allegory of the ancients has reference to water: the fable of MEDEA, who it was said, by boiling old people, made them young again, referred to warm or vapor baths, which she invented, and into which she infused fragrant herbs-in other words, the 'patent medicated vapor baths' of the present day. She also possessed the art of changing the color of the hair. When therefore, by her fomentations, persons appeared more active and improved in health, and their grey hairs changed into ringlets of jet, the belief in her magic powers became irresistibleand when at length, her apparatus, i. e. the cauldrons, wood and fire, &c. were discovered, (which she had sedulously concealed,) it was supposed that her patients were in reality boiled. From Ovid, it seems she had the modern sulphur bath also, and used it in the cure of Æson, the father of her husband Jason: the sleeping sire, She lustrates thrice with sulphur, water, fire. Met. vii. His feeble frame resumes a youthful air, A glossy brown, his hoary beard and hair. The meagre paleness from his aspect fled And in its room sprang up a florid red. This lady was the great patroness of herb and steam doctors of old; ana may be considered the ancient representative of modern manufacturers of specifics, which, as they allege, (and often truly) remove all diseases. The fable of her slaying her own children in the presence of Jason, is easily explained by her administering to them the wrong medicine, or too large a dose of the right one; the latter was certainly the case with old Pelias who expired under it. Having noticed in this chapter the supposed origin of cog-wheels, we may as well introduce here an ancient mechanic, to whom we shall have occasion hereafter to allude; one, whose name is intimately associated with the most valuable machines for raising water, and with several im Chap. 14.] Ctesibius. 121 portant improvements in the mechanic arts. As the earliest distinct notice of cog-wheels is in the description of one of his machines, (see the clepsydra, page 547,) we may as well introduce him to the reader at this part of our subject, although we have not yet in the progress of our work, arrived at the period at which he flourished. During the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus over Egypt, an Egyptian barber pursued his vocation in the city of Alexandria. Like all professors of that ancient mystery, he possessed besides the inferior apparatus, the two most essential implements of all: a razor and a looking glass, or mirror, probably a metallic one. This mirror, we are informed, was suspended from the ceiling of his shop, and balanced by a weight, which moved in a concealed case in one corner of the room. Thus, when a customer had undergone the usual purifying operations, he drew down the mirror, that he might witness the improvement which the artist had wrought on his outer man; and, like Otho, In the Speculum survey his charms. Juv. Sat. ii. after which he returned it to its former position for the use of the next customer.a It would seem that the case in which the weight moved was enclosed at the bottom, or pretty accurately made, for as the weight moved in it, and displaced the air, a certain sound was produced, either Se Metallic mirrors furnish one of the best proofs of skill in working the metals in the remotest times, for their antiquity extends beyond all records. In the first pages of history they are mentioned as in common use. The brazen laver of the Tabernacle, was made of the mirrors of the Israelitish women, which they carried with them out of Egypt. From some found at Thebes, as well as representations of others in the sculptures and paintings, we see at once that these 'looking glasses,' (as they are called in Exodus,) were similar to those of Greek and Roman ladies: viz. round or oval plates of metal, from three to six inches in diameter, and having handles of wood, stone and metal highly ornamented and of various forms, according to the taste of the wearer. Some have been found in Egypt with the lustre partially preserved. They are composed of an alloy of copper, and antimony or tin, and lead; and appear to have been carried about the person, secured to, or suspended from the girdle, as pincushions and scissors were formerly worn and are so still by some antiquated ladies. The Greeks and Romans had them also of silver and of steel. Some of the latter were found in Herculaneum. Plutarch mentions mirrors enclosed in very rich frames. Among the articles of the toilet found in Pompeii, are ear-rings, golden and common pins, and several metallic mirrors. One is round and eight inches in diameter, the other an oblong square. They had them with plane surfaces, and also convex and concave. neca says his countrywomen had them also, equal in length and breadth to a full grown person, superbly decorated with gold and silver, and precious stones. Their luxury in this article, seems to have been excessive, for the cost of one often exceeded a moderate fortune. The dowry which the Senate gave the daughter of Scipio, according to Seneca, would not purchase in his time, a mirror for the daughter of a freedman. The Anglo Saxon dames had portable metallic mirrors, and wore them suspended from the waist. It is not a litle singular that the ancient Peruvians had them also, formed of silver, copper and its alloys, and also of obsidian stone. They had them plane, convex, and concave. Had not the art of making these mirrors been revived in the speculums of reflecting telescopes, their lustre could hardly have been appreciated; and they would probably have been considered as indifferent substitutes for the modern lookingglass. These last are supposed to have been manufactured in ancient Tyre, and of a black colored glass. Fluid lead or tin was afterwards used. It was poured on the plates while they were hot from the fire, and being suffered to cool, formed a back which reflected the image. Looking-glasses of this description were made in Venice, in the 13th century. It was not till about the 16th, that the present mode of coating the back with quicksilver and tin foil was introduced. The inventor is not known. Venus was sometimes represented with a speculum in one hand, and the astronomical symbol of the planet Venus is the figure of one. There is a chemical examination of an ancient speculum in the 17th volume of Tilloch's Phil. Mag. Barbers flourished in the mythologic ages, for Apollo having prolonged the ears of Midas to a length resembling those of a certain animal, the latter it is said, endeavored to hide his disgrace by his hair, but found it impossible to conceal it from his barber Bronze razors were anciently common. 122 The Chain of Pots. [Book 1 by its expulsion through some small orifice, or by its escape between the sides of the case and the weight. This sound had probably remained unnoticed like the ordinary creaking of a door, perhaps for years, unti one day as the barber's son was amusing himself in his father's shop, his attention was arrested by it. This boy's subsequent reflections induced him to investigate its cause; and from this simple circumstance, he was led eventually either to invent, or greatly to improve the hydraulic organ, a musical instrument of great celebrity in ancient times. His ingenuity and industry were so conspicuous, that he was named 'The Delighter in Works of Art.' His studies in various branches of natural philosophy, were rewarded it is said, with the discovery of the pump, air-gun, fire-engine, &c. He also greatly improved the clepsydra or water-clock, in the construction of which he introduced toothed wheels, and even jeweled holes. Vitruvius, ix, 9. These ancient time-keepers, were therefore the origin of modern clocks and watches. Now this barber's son is the individual we wish to introduce to the reader, as CTESIBIUS OF ALEXANDRIA, one of the most eminent mathematicians and mechanicians of antiquityone, whose claims upon our esteem, are not surpassed by those of any other individual, ancient or modern. It will be perceived that the simple, the trivial sound produced by the descent of the weight in his father's shop, was to him, what the fall of the apple was to Newton, and the vibration of the lamp or chandelier in the church at Pisa, to Galileo. The circumstance presents another to the numerous proofs which might be adduced, that inquiries into the causes of the most trifling or insignificant of physical effects, are sure to lead, directly or indirectly, to important results-while to young men especially, it holds out the greatest encouragement to occupy their leisure in useful researches. It shows, that however unpropitious their circumstances may be, they may by industrious application, become distinguished in science, and may add their names to those of Ctesibius and Franklin, and many others-immortal examples of the moral grandeur of irrepressible perseverance in the midst of difficulties. CHAPTER XV. THE CHAIN OF POTS-Its origin-Used in Joseph's well at Cairo-Numerous in Egypt-Attempt of Belzoni to supersede it and the noria-Chain of pots of the Romans, Hindoos, Japanese, and EuropeansDescribed by Agricola-Spanish one-Modern one-Applications of it to other purposes than raising water-Employed as a first mover and substitute for overshot wheels-Francini's machine-Antiquity of the chain of pots-Often confounded with the noria by ancient and modern authors-Introduced into Greece by Danaus-Opinions of modern writers on its antiquity-Referred to by Solomon-Babylonian engine that raised the water of the Euphrates to supply the hanging gardens-Ropo pump-Hydraulic Belt. THE tympanum and noria in all their modifications, have been considered as originating in the gutter or jantu, and the swape; while the machine we are now to examine is evidently derived from the primitive cord and bucket. The first improvement of the latter was the introduction of a pulley (No. 11) over which the cord was directed-the next was the addition of another vessel, so as to have one at each end of the rope, (Nos. 13 and 14) and the last and most important consisted in uniting the ends |