III SOME COMMON MISTAKES IN GRAMMAR 12. Ordinary errors in writing and speaking occur from a variety of causes. No complete study of even the elements of grammar may be attempted in a textbook like the present one, which is concerned more with advanced composition and literature. Most students emerge from the elementary schools with a confused or imperfect knowledge of grammar. Yet this is due no more to inherent difficulties in the subject itself than it is to very human causes. The first of these is haste. Careless writing is bad writing; just the same as thoughtless speaking is vague or vicious speaking. No teacher and no book can do much for the pupil who never grows out of careless or slipshod habits. Few of us regard seriously enough the common mistakes in grammar; we pass them over as speakers, and hardly hear them as auditors. Yet we should regard a mistake which is the result of carelessness as much more reprehensible than a mistake due to lack of knowledge. Truly, is it not more excusable not to know than it is to know and fail to observe good forms? The second cause of most bad grammar is logical. Little faults in logic, small discrepancies in meaning, legitimate distinctions are often overlooked. A little of our incorrect grammar, being finally adopted, becomes recognized idiom. Yet that accident for so it frequently is does not justify us in using whatever mode of speech we happen to hit upon. Finally, in the third case, many common mistakes arise in a misconception of the value or true meaning of our English vocabulary. Thus words are used either without definite content of meaning, with wrong meaning, or with a meaning which has been transferred from some legitimate source and wrongly fixed on a word. That is to say, certain words are all right, if correctly used; but, in point of fact, they are often misapplied and then are of course wrong. Let us now consider only a few of the many possible errors. For this book the aim has been to select no type of mistakes not commonly found in many student papers. 13. Subject and verb should agree in number. Violations of the rule come from certain special cases, some of which illustrate and some of which vary the normal usage. You should always remember (1) that a collective noun (that is, a number of objects taken together as a group, and therefore thought of as a unit) requires a singular verb. Any word which includes many individuals taken separately, of course, requires a plural verb. Sometimes the same word is taken as either singular or plural according to the notion of the speaker. Thus, we say, Ten miles of road is impassable, when we wish to think of them as one unit; or are impassable, if we want to consider each separate mile. You should remember (2) that words like with, together with, as well as, are prepositions, not conjunctions; hence, they do not compound the subject. Thus, the subject remains singular if the idea is that of a unit or of one individual or thing. You should remember (3) that or and nor, as conjunctions distribute the subject; that is, each subject is taken singly with the verb. If both subjects are singular, the verb is singular. If they are of different number, the verb agrees with the nearer. The proper relationships between subject and verb are shown by the sentences which are printed below. Collective subject: The majority is intent on its purpose. Preposition: He, with his companions, has gone to the athletic contest. Singular subjects with nor: Neither John nor his brother has come. Singular and plural subjects: Neither John nor his friends have come. EXERCISE: Make a list of at least six collective nouns. 14. Relations between pronouns and antecedents must be clear and definite. Commonly the antecedent More rarely it may be a of a pronoun is a single word. small group, but it should never be a vague idea or anything understood. Thus, antecedents should be expressed. Perhaps it and he cause most trouble. Next comes which, to be used definitely, with expressed antecedent. "Weak reference" is a term which grammarians have applied to the use of words like which to refer to a whole clause, or to a general idea, or to an inference which one makes from some preceding sentence. To illustrate: Correct: The machine is used to fire a gun; for the operation of firing is difficult. Indefinite antecedent: The machine is used to fire a gun, which is difficult. Correct: The president offered to pay him well, but he did not accept the money. Confused: The president offered to pay him well, but he did not accept it. (Money or offer?) Correct: He asked me to bring him a book, and I did so. Indefinite reference: He asked me to bring him a book, which I did. Correct: Somebody called down the shaft and said that he wanted the elevator at once. Wrong number of pronoun: Somebody called down the shaft and said that they wanted the elevator at once. Correct: He asked me where my Hamlet is. I could not answer the question. Weak reference: He asked me where my Hamlet is. I could not answer that. Correct: One can learn to take pains if one (or he) wishes. 15. Cases of nouns and pronouns should be watched. The nominative case is used as subject and as predicate nominative (attribute) after verbs like be, seem, appear. Often the verb in a second part of a sentence is understood, in which case the nominative is sometimes wrongly changed to objective. Correct: It is you and they who are benefited, not we. Correct: Do you know it was he who came? Correct: He is older than I [am], but I do as well as he [does] in school. I did better than he [did] yesterday. 16. Possessives are of two kinds. For actual, continuous ownership use the apostrophe and s form ('s). The other, or phrase form with of, may be used as an alternative; but often it does not seem the natural idiom. With the names of inanimate objects, which, not being alive, cannot possess actively, most good authors tend to prefer this second or combination type. Real possession: John's hat; Fido's ears; boys' hats; men's work. Implied possession: The election of the secretary was unanimous. The coming of John was accidental. The streets of the city; rules of the college; progress of society; Doubtful usage: The secretary's election was unanimous. City's streets; college's rules; society's progress; town's Notice that custom - good use for centuries in some instances has favored a few phrases like a day's journey, a moment's monument, the law's delay, for conscience' sake. Such may be used without stint; but it is well not to multiply the list. Another kind of possessive occurs in the substantive which modifies a gerund or verbal noun. Common practice overlooks this important case. Right: We left without anybody's knowing it. (Not anybody knowing.) His going was unexpected; their traveling is habitual. 17. Confusion in the use of the accusative case occurs in two instances. First, who and whom cause considerable trouble, and a few other words follow suit. A few modern grammarians have advocated letting these words take their course, but the inevitable confusion that would result might complicate rather than simplify our idioms. Some have even sought to justify It is me, but they have not found favor. Probably we shall continue to distinguish between who nominative and whom accusative. Parenthetical words and phrases often cause the trouble; or a complicated grammar turns the whole sentence. To whom are you going to give that? The first sentence is preferable, but both are correct, and in both instances whom is object of preposition to. Who do men say that I am? That is, I am who, do men say? Who do you think will be chosen? The teacher, who John said was ill, in reality was here. Here do men say, do you think, John said are all parenthetical, and therefore do not affect the grammar of the sentence. The subject of an infinitive and a predicate noun completing an infinitive should always be in the objective case. They reported him to have gone westward. |