rather than in words; reserved, especially as regarded their deepest feelings, and little given to wearing their hearts upon their sleeves; serious-almost severe-in their mental outlook, but not melancholy; proud and sensitive, to an unusual degree. Fatalism Another and more striking characteristic-also probably the result of environment-was the belief in a severe, relentless Fate. They were fatalists in a very real and practical sense. "There is no good striving against it, for what must be is sure to happen," was the attitude taken towards that which seemed inevitable. But that fatalistic viewpoint by no means dominated the Northmen or made them ambitionless pessimists or cowardly weaklings. On the contrary, it seemed a distinct asset, and offered an incentive to make the most of life, in defiance of all of the supernatural forces leagued against them. In fact, their belief in fatalism caused them to look upon life as a sort of game, into which they plunged with zest. On the field of battle they fought fearlessly; and at sea they faced uncowed the fiercest storms. But in their pursuit of adventure no risk of life, in the usual sense of the term, was recognized by them as involved; however reckless a man might be, he would not be killed unless his death had been decreed by the inscrutable Fates; on the other hand, if he was destined to go, no amount of caution could save him. Their fatalistic philosophy was perhaps instrumental also in developing the qualities of versatility and adaptability which the Scandinavians possessed to an unusual degree, and which still characterize them. The ability to adjust themselves to new conditions and make the most out of a strange environment modified the effect of their individualism in an interesting manner and made them unusually successful colonists; for though they relinquished much of their individuality, they retained their influence, and as leaders and organizers and intelligent and coöperative followers they made a lasting impression upon the history of Europe. The same qualities make them desirable naturalized citizens at the present time. Part of the fatalistic game of life, and a very important part from the sporting Northman's point of view, was to try to acquire honor and fame before the Fates called him hence; and the uncertainty as to when the call would come added excitement to the pursuit. This adventurous attitude towards life also increased the desire for fame and praise, and the wish-which existed to a marked degree among the pagan Scandinavians— to be thought well of by their fellow men. "We have gotten a good report though we die to-day or to-morrow," 27 was the gratifying thought of the triumphant seeker after popular commendation. The "good report" desired was one which conformed closely with the standards of the period; hence fearlessness and victory in warlike feats were especially exalted. And though the Northmen were, on the whole, a modest people, who frowned upon braggarts, this ambition for reputation occasionally caused some to resort to vain and foolish methods for the purpose of securing attention and exciting remark, such as boasting, rich and extravagant dress, and a foolish display of wealth in connection with entertainments. Among themselves, the Scandinavians were unusually honest and straightforward; they showed a Honesty special contempt for the backbiter, the thief, and the liar, for the traitor and the breaker of oaths. 27 Corpus Poeticum Boreale, I, 59. But the reports of foreign chroniclers of the careers of the vikings indicate that the latter by no means always kept their treaties and their oaths of peace, that they repeatedly broke faith. It should be borne in mind, however, that we have not the Scandinavians' side of the story, and that the chroniclers were as a rule Christian monks who had special reason for hating the Northmen, since the latter took particular joy in plundering the churches and monasteries because of the wealth to be found therein. That these men from the North drove hard bargains in foreign lands and that they were quick to see and take advantage of flaws in contracts is quite evident, but it is well to reflect that "breach of faith" is the time-honored accusation of those worsted in a sharp deal. Furthermore, the violation of treaty terms and peace pacts with which they are repeatedly charged by their enemies may usually be explained by the fact that sometimes the money due them was not paid on time, or in full, and sometimes new vikings arrived who were not bound by the terms made by the earlier warriors.28 Yet, it is after all true that the Northman, like most other human beings, had one standard of conduct for his dealings with those of his own group-his family and people of his own nation-and quite another for those whom he regarded as outsiders,-foreigners, or absolute enemies. Though it was looked upon as dastardly to sneak into a neighbor's house and rob him of his possessions, plunder and piracy in a wholesale manner in the land of the foreigner, whom he regarded as kis legitimate prey, might bring to the Northern warrior the highest honor and praise from his fellow men; to creep upon and take advantage of a sleeping foe, or to 28 Stefánsson, Jon, "Western Influence on the Earliest Viking Settlers," in Saga Book of the Viking Club, V, 288. strike a man when he was down was contemptible in the home land; but when on their viking raids the Scandinavians followed another code, and were often ferociously cruel, not only to the men, but to the women and children as well, though women and children received special consideration when feuds were raging among those of Northern blood. Among themselves, however, the Northmen displayed a very different attitude from the present towards the killing of another in a private quarrel. Just Life as earnestly as the Christian code of to-day The Taking teaches the forgiveness of personal injury of Human and wrong-doing, the pagan standard under which the ancient Northmen lived inculcated the duty of avenging the wrong, particularly if it was murder; and it was considered a deep disgrace to the victim and to his family if the crime was not visited with retribution. The good son's first duty was to avenge his father's death. Generally speaking, there was no stigma attached in the ancient North to the person who killed another-for even in the Christian part of Europe at this time life was held very cheap-unless the act was of a particularly inexcusable and dastardly nature. Quarrels were exceedingly common, for the Northmen were hot-tempered, and their extreme pride and sensitiveness made them quick to resent an insult or a jeer. The community as a whole felt no special aversion towards the one who struck the fatal blow; and the family of the slayer looked upon the matter merely as an unfortunate occurrence, which, unless settlement were made by the payment of damages, would be almost certain to end in a bloody feud. This attitude is identical with that now taken by the mountaineers of Kentucky under similar circumstances. "Revellings and ale have often brought men grief of Drunken ness heart, death to some, to some curses, 29 is a bit of temperance wisdom from ancient Scandinavia; but it was one thing for an individual to philosophize over the evils of alcoholic beverages, and quite another for a nation to profit by a knowledge of the evil. The Northmen were hard drinkers and given to intemperance. Perhaps most of their feasts terminated in drunken carousals. In all probability, however, the fault was largely restricted to the wealthier classes, for the most intoxicating beverages were usually the most expensive; and in Iceland where most of these drinks, or the ingredients for their manufacture, had to be imported, there was comparatively little intoxication. The same was true of Norway, but to a lesser extent. Perhaps more drunkenness among the population as a whole was to be found in Denmark and southern Sweden, but it seems probable that the merchant and viking classes in all parts of Scandinavia were the hardest drinkers, for to them were intoxicants most accessible. Ibn-Fadlan, in describing the drunken revels of the Northern merchants on the Volga, stated that frequently the drinkers died of intoxication, still holding the drinking horns in their hands. 30 But in spite of what has been said, there is no reason to believe that the Scandinavians were worse, as regards intemperance, than the people of the remainder of Europe at the time; and it is possible that in some parts, as Iceland, they were better. Gambling was another fault, but it does not appear to have been very general; neither was it, so far Gambling as evidence shows, carried to the excess attributed to the ancient Germans by Tacitus. Betting took 29 Corpus Poeticum Boreale, I, 43. 30 Ibn-Fadlan, 11. |