nocent persons in their sleep.29 But some sorcerers just as readily used their magic of their own volition for the benefit of humanity. A sorceress in Norway who benefitted a whole community by filling the sounds with fishes during a period of famine is an example of this.30 Malevolent witches and wizards were, however, more common than kindly ones, and they were hated and feared by the Scandinavians; but life in the ancient North was by no means dominated by such fear.31 Punishment of Witches During the heathen days, the use of magic was, in itself, not in disrepute; for the great Odin was believed to be the master of all sorts of sorcery; it was only the one who wrought mischief and disaster by the use of charms and spells that was hated and avoided. Yet, even such persons were seldom punished-perhaps because of fear of their superior power. But some instances do exist of the trial and punishment of witches in the old days, particularly for night-riding; 32 among these is that of Katla, a particularly notorious Icelandic witch, who was stoned to death.33 With the coming of Christianity, however, divination of all sorts came to be looked down upon and was outlawed throughout the North; 34 and witch-burning was industriously pursued by the most pious of the early Christian kings.35 The Northern people nevertheless clung to magical beliefs and practices, for these 29 Saga Library, II, 29. 30 Origines Islandicae, I, 109. 31 There appears to be no real foundation for the statement made by Powell in his introduction to Saxo Grammaticus (LXXX), that "Heathen Teutonic life was a long terror by reason of witchcraft, as in heathen Africa to-day." 32 Saga Library, II, 48; Origines Islandicae, I, 58, 62, 109. 33 Saga Library, II, 48. 34 Norges Gamle Love, I, 17. 35 Saga Library, III, 312–313. things were firmly established in their mores; and the whole system of divination lived on down into modern times. Another class of people possessed of supernatural power were the clairvoyants-individuals having "foreknowledge" or "second sight.' These at 99 36 times also made use of common magic, but "Second they seem rarely to have used their power ClairvoySight," or for evil purposes. When they operated as ance professionals, they usually limited themselves to foretelling and to giving advice; but many, like the great Njal of Iceland, made no public use of their gifts. The professionals appear to have been most frequently women, called völvar; and these were not only sought out at their homes by persons wishing to learn about future events, or to discover the whereabouts of lost articles or domestic animals,37 but they were also in demand at feasts and entertainments, where they foretold the future for the pleasure and gratification of the guests, and answered questions with reference to important matters. One of the saga accounts of such a performance remarks that some of the hearers believed what the völva said, but that others did not; and another states that the "fortune-teller" told favorable things or not, according to the quality of her entertainment at the feasts.38 A most interesting and remarkable description of a spae-woman, or völva, is to be found in the Saga of Eric the Red. The entertainment at which she played a prominent part was held in Greenland more than nine hundred years ago.39 36 "Glúma," in Islenzkar Fornsögur, I, 36; Volsunga Saga, 9, 52. 37 Origines Islandicae, II, 98. In the remoter parts of Scandinavia the peasants to-day consult "wise" men and women for the same purpose. 38 Du Chaillu, Viking Age, I, 394, 396, 401. 39 This description may be found in English translation between pages It is not improbable that such clairvoyants at times filled the office of soothsayers in the temples, but there is no proof that this was the case. 20 and 23 of Olson, Julius E., (ed.), “The Voyages of the Northmen," in Original Narratives of Early American History, vol. I. CHAPTER XXIV DEATH AND BURIAL though thou hast lost thy brother, it is manly to bear it well, for man must live after man. Egils Saga. Care of THE humanitarian spirit of the present time which reflects itself in the tender care of the sick is a thing of recent growth; even in the late Middle Ages such sympathy was rare in Christian lands, and it was less common still during the heathen period in Scandinavia. Except at the hands of friends and relatives, the sick received scant attention, unless it was paid for. Though most people felt a certain sense of social obligation towards the helpless, the aid which they gave was usually a very meager minimum; if no friend was about, poor folk and slaves could expect little else than that food and water be placed beside them, after which they were left to die or recover, just as the Fates decreed.1 Nábjargir But whether alone or surrounded by loved ones, when the end approached, the Northman met it manfully. He did not welcome death, but neither did he fear it; he merely faced it with the dauntless spirit displayed towards the earlier and lesser adventures of his career. To do so was only in harmony with the fatalistic philosophy which more or less shaped his life. However, when his mortal experiences had terminated and he had drawn his last breath, it was well for the 1 Ibn-Fadlan, 11. living if some friend was near at hand to perform nábjargir for him-to press down the eyelids and to close the nostrils as well as the mouth. Otherwise, misfortune might be expected to visit other members of the household; for it was believed that evil would befall any one who passed in front of the corpse before this final friendly act was done.2 Prepara tion of the Corpse for Burial In preparation for its burial, servants or friends washed the body and clad it as for a feast in the finest clothing and ornaments that circumstances would permit. The most important part of the apparel was the hel shoes, which would enable the deceased to walk safely to the realm of departed spirits; but the records do not make clear just what was the nature of these shoes.3 All preparation for the final putting away of the corpse was made as soon as possible, and in the interval the body lay upon boards in a spare apartment of the dwelling house or in an outbuilding and was watched over by members of the household. When everything was ready for the removal of the dead one, friends and relatives gathered around and whispered into the cold ears loving words of farewell, and repeated wishes for a safe and pleasant journey to the land of the shades. It is probable that the farewells and friendly wishes were again uttered in songs and spoken words while the remains were being carried out, as was customary in early Christian times throughout the North and is still done in parts of Iceland. If death had come from natural causes, the body was taken through the main door of the dwelling; 2 Origines Islandicae, II, 114. 3 Ibid., I, 563; Gísla Saga Surssonar, 32. 4 Origines Islandicae, II, 604. 5 Corpus Poeticum Boreale, I, 43; Saga Library, III, 188. |