ries, or conceive that error and misstatement has only to be reiterated a sufficient number of times to be accepted as truth in the end. The same tactics are renewed in the present work, and reappear in all the after-dinner speeches and official utterances when the Japanese Embassy arrived within the American territories. Thus we are informed by Mr. Charles Lanman that

'The influences which have been disseminated among the nations of the East by the various interests of the Western nations, have hitherto been injurious rather than beneficial. The people of Japan, as well as all in the Orient, feel the need of increased light in regard to the more elevated interests of humanity; and this is the chief reason why Mr. Mori cherishes a strong desire to do all he can for the education of his people.

'The influences alluded to have also done much to keep back from the people of Japan very much of that true spirit of civilisation, so eminently characteristic of America. And the fact seems now to be generally acknowledged that the Japanese people not only desire to follow, as far as possible, in all educational and political affairs, the example of the Americans, but that they look upon them as their best friends, among the nations of the globe.'

This is pretty well; but when the writer goes on to add that 'a prominent idea with the educated classes of Japan is, that in the very ship which took Commodore M. C. Perry to Japan in 1852, were the germs of Christianity, civilisation, and desire for equality and political freedom, and that the seed then planted has been steadily growing from that to the present time,'

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it is difficult to avoid smiling at the sentiment attributed to the Japanese. If the educated classes' could be polled on the question as to what were the germs brought over in the 'very ship of Commodore Perry,' we think we could guarantee it would be something quite different, both as to germs and fruit. Mr. De Long was infinitely nearer the truth, in a moment of effusiveness, at San Francisco, when, in his reply to the toast of Our relations with Japan,' and speaking of Commodore Perry, he said: 'His gallantry first bore down 'the outer walls of seclusion, and under his auspices the foothold was gained which is revolutionising the land.' And this was precisely what the then governing executive, the Tycoon and his Gorogio, or Council, with the Daimios or nobles of Japan, all firmly believed that the foothold once gained, the country would be speedily revolutionised, and a desire for equality and political freedom, and many other things besides, from which they, the rulers of the land, had been happily free, would quickly follow in the wake of the ship which brought them Commodore Perry and a ready-drafted treaty for their

acceptance-whether exactly to their taste or otherwisetogether with a good many American notions.

Whether the Americans are playing their cards well with the Japanese or otherwise, and what amount of reward they may look for in railway concessions or mines or custom-house places over the heads of any rivals for these good things, is worthy of very little attention, and quite beneath a great nation's care. It is more interesting, and infinitely more useful, to inquire what is the nature of the vast changes so rapidly being effected in Japan. Have they any element of stability, any promise of utility and permanence? Or are they merely deceptive coruscations, like the blue-lights of a theatrical transformation-scene -not wholly without danger to the surrounding properties and actors, perhaps,―and destined, like them, speedily to disappear and be exchanged for dirty oil-lamps and a state of darkness and squalor? To this part of the subject we are glad to turn, in the hope of finding in the materials before us certain indications of a cheering character regarding the transition stages through which Japan is now passing-not only the country in levelling lines of rail and telegraphic wire, but the institutions and the people, so lately the most stationary, secluded, and utterly isolated of all the known inhabitants of the globe.

The Japanese attribute a supernatural, almost divine power, and an unlimited authority over their fellow-creatures, to all who descend lineally from the first-born son of Isanami, the last of their gods who governed Japan, from whom came a race of god-men, the progenitors of the present royal race. This, Kampfer continues, is expressed by the titles and highsounding epithets they give to this whole family, but particularly to its head and prince-such as Oodai, the Great Generation; Mikado, Emperor; Zenoo, Heavenly Prince; Tiensin, Son of Heaven; Dairi, by which is frequently denoted the whole court of the Emperor, ecclesiastical and secular, king by divine right and descent, pope, pontiff, and temporal sovereign combined in one, with all the highest prerogatives of all, whose decrees, in all matters temporal and spiritual, are without appeal, infallibility being one of the heaven-born gifts attaching by descent to the supreme head of his house and race.

Upon this foundation the whole superstructure of their political and social institutions has been raised. The historical annals of Japan date from 660 before Christ, and a regular succession of Mikados in lineal descent from the founders of their dynasty and race has since been carefully recorded. Uncommon respect,' we are told, and a more than human

veneration, is on this account paid them by their subjects and 'countrymen,' like the fealty and respect paid by the Highland clans to their chieftains, with whom they claimed relationship, and therefore obeyed with no servile feeling, but with pride and devotion, as the head of their house and representative of their own blood.

That we may really understand what advantage has been derived from this tradition and faith, we must know how the princes of this family, and more particularly those who sat on the throne, were treated by the people and the court officials. One extract will suffice:

'They are looked upon as persons most holy in themselves, and as popes by birth. They are obliged to have an uncommon care of their sacred persons. In accordance with this popular idea it was deemed prejudicial to his dignity and holiness to touch the ground with his feet, for which reason when he wished to go anywhere he had to be carried on men's shoulders. He was not allowed to expose his sacred person to the open air, and the sun must not shine on his head. Such holiness was ascribed to all the parts of his body that he might not cut his hair, or beard, or nails. However, to prevent inconvenience, these things were done for him at night, on the plea that they were stolen from him without prejudice to his dignity or holiness. In ancient times he was obliged to sit immobile on his throne for many hours • each day, because by that means it was supposed he could secure peace and tranquillity in his empire. Later it was discovered that the crown was the palladium, which by its immobility would preserve peace and tranquillity, and it was expedient to deliver his Imperial person, consecrated only to idleness and pleasure, from this burdensome duty, and the crown alone was placed on the throne.'

As soon as, by the demise of a Mikado, the throne became vacant, he who is regarded by the court as the next heir is put in his place, without regard to age or sex. Sometimes it happened that this could not be arranged peaceably in the inner penetralia of the court, and those of the imperial family who thought themselves unjustly excluded maintained their right by force of arms. Hence arose wars and dissensions as bloody as our own War of the Roses. The princes and Daimios of the empire espoused different interests, and these quarrels seldom ended but with the entire destruction of one of the contending parties and the extirpation of whole families. It was in consequence of such a state of things that the Emperor on the throne had to create a generalissimo of his army; and one of these, in the twelfth century, known as Joritomo, a son of the occupant of the Dairi, after putting down his father's enemies, thought fit to retain the executive power. From this arose a dual government, such as was found

VOL. CXXXVI. NO. CCLXXVII.

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when foreigners first landed, in the sixteenth century, and on to the present period of revolution and restoration. A Tycoon. was the head of the executive government, under a feudal organisation of nobles-military service of retainers and serfdom, with the same kind as prevailed over Europe, and especially in England, in the Saxon and early Norman periods. The Mikado was by all in the empire acknowledged as the sole sovereign de jure. The Tycoons were the exact counterparts of the Mayors of the Palace under the Merovingian sovereigns, and ruled de facto-as Pepin and Charles Martel ruled in France. We advert to these parallel periods and facts in the history of Western nations to save time, because whoever is well acquainted with the state of Great Britain and France in the eleventh and twelfth centuries knows also, with comparatively slight differences, the political and social state of Japan at the same period. The chief difference to be borne in mind is the longer prevalence of the feudal element, which was greatly changed, and subject to perpetual and progressive modifications during all the succeeding centuries in Europe; whereas Japan preserved, with scarcely any fundamental change, down to the negotiation of the first treaties, in 1853-8, the same leading features. Taikosama, a peasant's son, who was a successful soldier, deposed the descendants of Joritomo, and altered the hereditary line of descent for these Mayors of the Palace, known by the title of Siogun, or Tycoon; he also broke up all the larger fiefs, destroying the quasi independence, and effectually curbing the turbulence of the majority of them. Satsuma, Chosiu, Kanga, and one or two others alone proved strong enough to retain some of their power and independence; and with them he had to accept a nominal recognition. But all alike were in later years compelled to submit to the most galling conditions of subordination. Six months in the year they were required to dwell in Yeddo, the capital of the Tycoon; and when they left for their own principalities they were bound to leave their wives and male heirs behind them, under surveillance. They nominally constituted the great council of the nation for all great affairs of state, like the earls and holders of fiefs in our own earlier history. The country was well governed upon the whole, in a summary and primitive way. Order was maintained; and by skill and patient industry the whole land had been converted into a garden rich in agricultural produce. A noble and a military caste were maintained, with privileges oppressive to all below them; but the country not the less prospered. Industry increased, and the people carried some of their manufactures to a higher pitch of

perfection han any other nation has ever been able to attain, notably in their silks and crapes, their working in metals, and in the finer kinds of porcelain and lacquer. Such were the people and such the state of the country when Mendez Pinto and his companions landed in Japan in the sixteenth century; and such it was in all essentials when, in the middle of the nineteenth, the Americans first, and all the other Western Powers afterwards, entered into treaties with Japan for the promotion of amity and commerce. The people, without anything which modern Europe understands by liberty-without a representative government or a public press, with a Draconian code of laws and no lawyers, only magistrates for their execution, with torture for their instruments of justice; with some tyranny on the part of the noble and military castes, and no great ease or comfort among the lower class of merchants, artisans, and labourers-the latter, as tillers of the soil, taking rank before the other two, there was little absolute destitution or want, perhaps more enjoyment of life and the material means of subsistence, than merrie England' could boast of in any past period of her annals.

We have seen the mode of life of the Mikados, the absolute inaction to which they were reduced by the usurping power of the Tycoons, nominally only their lieutenants; now let us turn. to the next page of the nation's history, to trace the proximate causes of a revolution so entirely unprecedented in its character, extent, and rapidity of consummation. What progress Japan has made within the last ten years Mr. de Long has well described in a speech reported in the work now under review, and the bare enumeration of the changes already effected cannot fail to excite our wonder.

'To-day what do we behold?

Under the wise administration of His Imperial Majesty, the Tenno, we see thirty odd millions of people marching at a "double-quick' into full fellowship with foreign states.

The reign of his Majesty, signalised by its enlightenment, must make its own history for ever illustrious. In this noble and unprecedented work of reform it is but proper to add that his Majesty finds most able and effectual support from the counsel of the noble Ministers of the Empire, some of whom it is our good fortune to be able to meet and honour in our land.

'The mighty change, from our relations as they were to our relations as they are, is so sudden, so complete, so very wonderful as to be bewildering.

'Allow me to note a few of the prominent landmarks in this road of reform upon which this nation is travelling. The Japanese Government has been centralised by the abolishment of Daimiates, thus resolv