should be able to name in each language, where possible, a prefix, affix, or root, corresponding to it. They should also know the chief roots, their meaning, the language from which they are taken, the parts which enter into the composition of English words, and be able to give examples of words formed from them. They should, however, in a special manner, be able to trace the meaning of the word from the meaning of the root, for in many cases the connection between them is by no means very plain. Thus, the root of 'explore' is ploro, to weep; but between weeping and exploring there appears to be no connection whatever. It is the duty of the master to point out this connection, and so as to enable his children to understand it fully. From inattention to this, some very absurd mistakes are made; as, for instance, I was told lately that 'carnivorous' came from carnivis, flesh, and oro, to beg, and that disaster came from dis, asunder, and aster, a star.

root.

Meanings ought sometimes to be given in terms of the It is a very good plan to make the pupils give the meanings in terms of the root and prefixes, &c. Thus, instead of saying that to be unanimous means to agree together, the children might, when tracing words to their roots, say that unanimous meant to be of one mind-to have, as it were, the same mind—and therefore to agree.

Grammar is an intellectual study. In conclusion, I may state that, from all I have written, it appears that grammar is not treated as it ought to be. The treatment of it, like the treatment of arithmetic, is too routine and technical; but inasmuch as grammar is more purely intellectual1 than arithmetic, it is, in proportion, worse taught. In fact, the more any subject appeals to the judgment and the reason, the less is known of it. Rote teaching in such cases supersedes carefully-arranged instruction, and pupils guess instead of thinking. Such subjects are certainly more difficult than others; but, as if to compensate for this, they are, when once known, the least likely to be forgotten.

But it may still be introduced early. But although grammar is a subject eminently requiring 'head-work,' yet it is rightly introduced into the school course at an early period; for when properly taught, many of its leading facts, and many of its most valuable qualities, can be made available for the improvement of the youngest children. In fact, grammar can scarcely be begun too soon, provided it is begun properly; for to teach the grammar

1 Grammar accustoms the mind to reflect more than any other department of primary instruction whatever.'-Min. of Council, 1848-9, vol. ii. p. 172.

'It is the best study for drawing out the intelligence of the children.' -Education Commissioners, vol. vi. p. 214, 1861.

GRAMMAR MAY BE BEGUN EARLY.

217

Whatever words

of a language is merely to teach the sense of it. make grammar together, make also sense together, and whatever words make sense together, make also grammar together.' Neither can we regard it as a mere accomplishment, such as music and drawing, but we must look upon it as an essential portion of even the poorest education, and therefore as much a part of the course in the lowest National School as in the highest College; for persons of all ranks, if they learn to read at all, must equally learn to know what words make sense together, and why they make it.

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CHAPTER VII.

GEOGRAPHY.

Geography may be treated of in two ways. We may teach geography either synthetically or analytically. We can either begin with general views of the whole surface of the earth, and descend gradually to the most minute description of each portion of it, or we can, on the contrary, set out from the spot on which we stand, describing the school and school-grounds, then the immediate neighbourhood, then the townland, the parish, barony, county, country, &c. &c.; each new subject being more extended than its predecessor, until, in the end, we embrace the whole world and all that dwell upon it. The one plan enters upon the geographical study of the earth by giving at first the broadest outlines merely of the continents, oceans, &c., and then gradually fills up the picture; while the other treats first of the topography of the neighbourhood, and lastly of the relative position &c. of countries when connected as a whole.

Both practised, but first best. Both these plans have been practised, but the first alone has been successful; for, however good the second may be in theory (and very many arguments can be brought forward to show that in theory at least it is excellent), it is found in practice that it requires men possessed of more than the usual intelligence of teachers to carry it out successfully. It requires special maps and diagrams of an expensive kind, and necessarily varying for each school; and it requires also from the children a regularity of attendance and an amount of attention to school duties much beyond what experience has shown it right to expect.

From what the synthetical system arose. This system' arose from supposing that what is naturally most interesting to us, and with which we are most frequently brought in contact, should not only be the best known, but the first known. But this is not always the case; for, as John Norris says, 'It is one thing to state that a thing deserves to be known, and another to say that it is learning and wisdom to know it.' I am very much inclined to coincide with Mr. Gordon, when he says, 'It is surely a more liberal and improving knowledge which embraces, though in a very

general manner, the great features of the entire surface of the earth, than that which is limited to an acquaintance, not very minute, with the topography of any of its political divisions, however much recommended by the accident of a personal relation to it.'

Knowledge of other countries very valuable.

There is

no doubt but that our own country and our own neighbourhood are naturally more interesting to us than any other; but will a knowledge of them, in this age of change and emigration, be more useful? And, if not, would the time spent upon the acquisition of all their minute details not have been better spent in obtaining general views of the world-its countries, its people, its animals, vegetables, minerals, &c.?

Our thoughts are oftener on foreign countries than on our own. Steam and the electric telegraph have so extended the facilities of communication, have so enlarged the commerce of the world, and so bound nations and people to each other, that we no longer feel and act as when isolated in single spots; we think as frequently of Australia, of America, of France, if not even more so, as of our own land; and therefore geography, to be practical, must embrace a large area, even if the knowledge so scattered be not so deep-and this especially in primary schools, in which the pupils remain so short a time.

We must, however, appeal to topography of locality first. In carrying out the analytical, or descending system, we cannot, however, wholly reject the other, which I may call the topographical system of teaching geography. The terms city, country, continent, river, mountain, &c., do not, in general, convey correct ideas of the things themselves to the minds of children; and as true ideas are essential, and only to be satisfactorily obtained by a judicious extension of the child's views of the locality in which he lives, we must, to be intelligible, appeal to topography first, not as a system of teaching, but only as a means of explanation of certain terms.

Mr. Moseley's views on this. The following admirable remarks from Mr. Moseley's Report for 18451 prove the necessity for such a course, and show how it is to be done :—

'To understand the difficulties under which a child labours, we have only to consider how many things go to our own conception of a distant region. The map serves, indeed, to define the idea we have of it, to give it vividness and completeness; but it does not originate it.

'We already know what a country is, which the child does

1 Min. of Council, 1845–6, vol. i. p. 233.

poor

not. When a country is pointed out by name to him upon the map, and he has learned to tell how, in respect to the four cardinal points, it is bounded by other countries, and what are the names of its rivers and mountains and chief towns, his memory may have been largely taxed, and yet his principal idea of the country may, nevertheless, remain in a great degree identified with an irregular figure upon a piece of paper. A vast chasm is interposed in the child's mind between the objects with which he is himself familiar, and those of which, in such instruction, he is required to conceive the existence—a chasm which his imagination is not strong enough to bear him over.

'His conceptions are too vague and too incoherent to be separated from the material things of which they have been formed, or to be presented to the imagination, and made the subject of comparison, of analogy, of accumulation, and of invention.

Must first teach him to observe. The first step in his education is to teach him to observe. This accomplished, and the child knowing at length adequately, for the purpose in hand, the characteristic features of that portion of the earth's surface which is within the compass of a day's journey, its varieties of elevation and aspect, its hills, valleys, and streams, his attention may be directed to the agrarian divisions of his parish, the fields and holdings which unite to form it. The boundaries of these, with which his memory is familiar, will convey to him his first idea of a map and its uses; that idea will, moreover, be precise and truthful. The next step might make him acquainted with the watershed of the district, and then the teacher would bring under his view the useful productions which it is made to yield by labour, whether pastoral or agricultural or mineral, associated as these are with the characteristic features of its surface level, its climate, drainage, aspect, and soil. Then the pursuits of its inhabitants, whether agricultural or manufacturing or commercial, in alliance with these and dependent upon them. Next, the domain of Natural History may be made to yield much for his instruction, in respect to the infinite variety of animal and vegetable forms which are assembled within the reach of his immediate observation, the birds which frequent that region, the domestic and wild animals, some of the tribes of insects, the commoner plants which grow around him, and the different kinds of trees. It is not proposed to burden the child's mind, in respect to any of these matters, with scientific distinctions or a hard nomenclature; all that is sought is a knowledge of them in their ordinary relations—such a knowledge as a child acquires in respect to those other things with which he is most familiar.

Explanation of certain terms. Long before the teacher has