The manner of making this paper is described by Mr. Lloyd (Phil. Trans. No. 166, p. 824), from an essay made by himself. He pounded a quantity of the asbestos in a stone mortar, till it became a downy substance; then sifted it in a fine searce, and by this means purged it indifferently well of its terrene parts; because the earth or stones he could not pick out of it before, or at the pounding, being reduced to a powder, came through a searce, the linum remaining. This done, he brought it to the paper-mill: and, putting it in water, in a vessel just big enough to make a sheet with such a quantity, he stirred it pretty much, and desired the workmen to proceed with it in the usual method, with their writing-paper mould; only to stir it about always before they put their mould in; considering it as a far more ponderous substance than what they used; and that consequently, if not immediately taken up after it was agitated, it would subside. The paper made of it proved but coarse, and was very apt to tear; but this was the first trial, and the workmen did not doubt, but in case it were pounded in one of their mortars for twenty hours, it would make good writing-paper. See ASBESTOS.

PAPER-HANGINGs, in the arts, are of various kinds, and are used for the covering of ceilings, walls, stair-cases, &c., and represent stucco work, velvet, damask, brocades. chintzes, or such silks and stuffs as are employed for hanging rooms: hence their name. The principal difference in the manufacture lies in the grounds. The common grounds are laid in water, and made by mixing whitening with the common glovers' size, and laying it on the paper with a proper brush in the most even manner. This is all that is required where the ground is to be left white; and the paper being then hung on a proper frame till it be dry is fit to be painted. When colored grounds are required, the same method must be pursued, and the ground of whiting first laid, except in pale colors, such as straw-colors or pink, where a second coating may sometimes be spared, by mixing some strong color with the whitening.

There are three methods by which paperhangings are painted; the first. by printing on the colors; the second, by using the stencil; and the third, by laying them on with a pencil, as in other kinds of painting.

1. When the colors are laid on by printing, the impression is made by wooden prints, cut in such a manner that the figure to be expressed is made to project from the surface; and this being charged with the colors tempered with their proper vehicle, by letting it gently down on a block on which the color is previously spread, conveys it from thence to the ground of the paper on which it is made to fall by means of its weight, and the effort of the arm of the person

who uses the print. It is easy to conclude that there must be as many separate prints as there are colors to be printed. But, where there are more than one, great care must be taken after the first to let the print fall exactly in the same part of the paper as that which went before, otherwise the figure of the design would be brought into irregularity and confusion. In common paper of low price it is usual, therefore, to print only the outlines, and lay on the rest of the colors by stenciling, which both saves the expense of cutting more prints, and can be practised by common workmen, not requiring the great care and dexterity necessary to the using several prints.

In the finer paper, where several colors are laid on with the prints, the principal color is begun with: and the rest taken successively; the print for the outline being laid on last. In cases where the pencil is to be used, the outline is nevertheless to be made before the colors are laid on by the pencil, if such outline is to be made at all; because that is the guide to the persons who lay on the color; and confines them to a correctness. In paper printed with designs in chiaro-scuro, such as the imitation of stuccowork, and bas relievos, the order of printing must be, to lay on the ground color first; afterwards the shades; and lastly the lights; and the same rule of succession inust be observed where the colors are penciled.-Handmaid to the Arts, vol. ii. p. 445, &c.

2. The manner of stencilling the colors is this. The figure, which all the parts of any particular color make in the design to be painted, is to be cut out in apiece of thin leather or oil-cloth, which pieces of leather or oil-cloth are called stencils; and being flat on the sheets of paper to be printed, spread on a table or floor, are to be rubbed over with the color properly tempered by means of a large brush. The color passing over the whole is consequently spread on those parts of the paper where the cloth or leather is cut away, and gives the same effect as if laid on by a print. This nevertheless is only practicable in parts where there are only detached masses or spots of colors; for where there are small continued lines, or parts that run one into another, it is difficult to preserve the connexion or continuity of the parts of the cloth, or to keep the smaller corners close down to the paper; and, therefore, in such cases, prints are preferable. Stencilling is indeed a cheaper method of accomplishing the work than printing; but, without such extraordinary attention and trouble as render it equally difficult, it is far less beautiful and exact in the effect. For the outlines of the spots of color want that sharpness and regularity that are given by prints, besides the frequent extralineations or deviations from the just figure, which happen by the original misplacing of the stencils, or the shifting of the place of them during the operation.

3. Pencilling is only used in the case of nicer work, such as the better imitations of the Indian paper. It is performed in the same manner as other painting in water or varnish. It is sometimes used only to fill the outlines already formed by printing, where the price of the color, or the exactness of the manner in which it is required to be laid on, render the stencilling or printing it

wrought at Alexandria, and finished at Rome. (2.) Člaudia, first made by order of the emperor Claudius, and reputed the best of all the kinds made in his time.

The general mode of manufacturing the papyrus was to begin by lopping off the head and root of the plant; the remaining stem was then slit lengthwise into two equal parts, and from each of these they stripped the thin scaly coats or pellicles, of which it was composed, with a needle or the point of a knife. The innermost of those pellicles were looked on as the best, and those nearest the rind or bark the worst; they were kept apart accordingly, for different and inferior sorts of paper. Pliny calls these pellicles by the twelve different names of philura, ramentum, scheda, cutis, plagula, corium, tænia, subtegmen, flatumen, pagina, tabula, and papyrus. The pellicles being thus detached, and, according to the count de Caylus, dried in the sun, were stretched on a table, and two or more laid over each other transversely, so as that their fibres crossed in right angles. The Claudian paper, named above, consisted of three of these pellicles or layers. They were then glued together with the slime of the Nile, or a flour paste; afterwards pressed to get rid of the water; and flatted and smoothed by being beaten with mallets. Sometimes a polish was added by means of a hemisphere of glass, ivory, or bone. The Romans seem to have used a size or gum, whereby they could enlarge or diminish the final volume of the paper, and they excelled in the bleaching and polishing of it.

Varro, who in common with many writers assigns the origin of the manufacture of papyrus to Alexandria, seems to have overlooked several important facts which prove it to have been known to the Greeks before the conquest of Egypt by Alexander. Thus Anacreon Alcæus, Plato the comedian, Aristomenus, Plato the philosopher, Aristotle, and Eschylus, used the terms Blog and Bißiov: and Herodotus, Homer, and Hesiod, expressly mention the papyrus. Pliny cites a passage from an ancient Roman annalist which speaks of paper books found in king Numa's tomb, who was buried above three centuries before Alexander. At the period of Alexander's conquests it seems, how ever, to have become far more generally known; and, so late as two centuries after, we find stems and barks of trees frequently used for writing upon through the scarcity of paper. In the reign of Tiberius there was such a scarcity of this article that its use in contracts was dispensed with by public authority. In about the twelfth century its manufacture seems to have been entirely discontinued.

Montfaucon and others speak of an ancient Egyptian bark paper, which they distinguish from that made of the papyrus as thicker and more brittle, as well as more apt to part asunder, so that in some instances the bottom layer has been found to remain, and that on which the writing was made has peeled off. Matthei, however, thinks little of this distinction, and contends that the only use of the tilia or linden was for making the boards or tablets used for diptycha or pocket-books; and sometimes to be

written on, on both sides, which the ordinary Egyptian paper would not bear.

A paper made of cotton seems to have been working its way into Europe from the east as early as the tenth century. There are MSS. written on it in fact of this date in the French king's library: and in the twelfth century cotton MSS. became more frequent than those on skins. This paper is that called charta bombyca.

Some anomalous kinds of ancient paper may be here alluded to, and close this part of our sketch. According to the Memoirs de Trev. (Sept. 1711), there are two papal bulls of the dates 891 and 895 (issued by the Anti-popes, Romanus, and Formosus), which are written on an unknown material of this description, two ells long and one broad: they consist of two leaves or pellicles glued together transversely, and are still legible in most places. The conjectures of the French literati in regard to them are very various. Some consider them to be made of the leaves of the alga, or sea-wreck; others of the leaves of a rush, called la boga, found in the marshes of Rousillon; others of papyrus; others of bark; and others of cotton. There is also a MS. of this description in the abbey of St. Germains.

The oriental and other papers made direct from vegetable substances, seem next to require our attention: though all the published details of the mode of manufacturing them are vague and unsatisfactory. There are many palm trees of India and America to which botanists have given the name papyraceous, because the natives have written with bodkins either on the leaves or the bark. Such is the American palm, called tal by the Indians; and the guajaraba of New Spain. Every palm the bark of which is smooth, and the leaves large and thick, may be used for this purpose.

But the art of making paper from vegetables reduced to stuff was known in China long before it was practised in Europe; and the Chinese have carried it to a degree of perfection hitherto unparalleled in the western world.

Every province of their empire has its peculiar paper. That of Se-tchuen is made of hemp or of linen rags, as in Europe; that of Fo-kien of the bamboo; that of the northern provinces, of the interior bark of the mulberry; that of the province of Kiang-nan of the skin found in the webs of the silk-worm; other provinces use the cotton plant extensively, others the bark of the elm, and wheat or rice straw; finally, in the province of Hu-quang, the tre-chu, or ko-chu, furnishes the materials with which they make paper.

The method of fabricating paper with the bark of different trees is nearly the same with that which is followed in the bamboo, of which alone we shall speak. The second skin of the bamboo generally, but sometimes the whole substance, is reduced to pulp by steeping, boiling, and the mortar, and then beat together with the glutinous juice of a plant named ko-teng, till it becomes a thick and viscous liquor. The workmen plunge their forms into this liquor; take out what is sufficient for a sheet of paper, which immediately becomes firm and shining, and is detached from

the form by turning down the sheet on the heap of paper already made, without the interposition of pieces of woollen cloth, as in Europe. The Chinese paper must be dipped in a solution of alum before it can take either ink or colors.

In Japan they manufacture paper from the bark of trees of a prodigious strength. There is a kind of it fit for bed-hangings and wearing apparel; resembling so much stuffs of wool and silk, that it is often taken for them. The following is Kempfer's catalogue of trees used in Japan for the manufactory of paper:-1. The true paper-tree, called in the Japanese language Kaadsi, Kempfer characterises thus: papyrus fructu mori celsæ, sive morus sativa foliis urtica mortuæ cortice papifero. 2. The false papertree, called by the Japanese katsi kadsire; by Kempfer papyrus procumbens lactescens, folio longo, lanceata cortice chartaceo. 3. The plant which the Japanese call oreni is named by Kempfer alva radice viscosa, flore ephemero magno punico. 4. The fourth tree used for paper is the futo-kadsura, named by Kempfer frutex viscosus procumbens folio telephii vulgaris æmulo fructu racemoso.

When the bark they use has been cleansed and sorted, they boil it in clear lie; keeping it from the time it begins to boil perpetually stirred with a strong reed, and pouring from time to time so much fresh lie in as is necessary to condense the evaporation, and to supply what has been lost by it; this boiling is continued till the matter is so tender that being but slightly touched with the finger it will dissolve and separate into fibres. The lie is made of wood ashes, in the following manner: two pieces of wood are laid across over a tub and covered with straw, on which they lay wet ashes, and then pour boiling water upon it, which, as it runs through the straw into the tub underneath, is imbued with the saline particles of the ashes.

After boiling follows the washing of the bark, which is generally performed in a river, and requires great judgment and attention. The bark is put into a sort of sieve, which will let the water run through, and stirred continually till it comes to be diluted into a delicate pulp. For the finer sort of paper the washing is repeated, and the bark put into a piece of linen, instead of a sieve, as the particles become very fine; and the harder pieces or knots are now picked out. Now the bark is put upon a thick, smooth, wooden table, in order to its being beaten with sticks of the kusnoki wood, which is commonly done by two or three people, until it is so thin as to resemble a pulp of soaked paper; and, being thus prepared, it is put into a narrow tub, with the fat slimy infusion of rice, and the infusion of the oreni root, which likewise is very slimy and mucilaginous. These ingredients being put together are stirred with a thin clean reed, till they are thoroughly mixed and wrought into a uniform liquid substance, of good consistence, and out of this tub the leaves are taken off one by one, on proper patterns made of bulrushes. These to dry them are laid up in heaps, upon a table covered with a double mat, and a small piece of reed is put between every leaf,

which serves, in time, to lift them up and take them off singly.

At the beginning of the summer, when the oreni root is scarce, the paper-makers make use of a creeping shrub called sane kadsura, the leaves of which yield a mucilage in great plenty, though not altogether so good for this purpose. They also use the juncus sativus, which is cultivated in Japan with great care.

The Siamese make a paper of the bark of the pleok-kloi tree, of which they have a black and a white kind: it is folded up in books, in the manner of fans, and will bear to be written on on both sides with a stylus which they make of clay.

The Cingalese also, according to Dr. Davy, write very neatly and expeditiously with a sharp-pointed style on the immense leaf of the talipot-palm: coloring their characters, when scratched by an ink made of lamp-black and gum.' Their numerous books are all formed of these leaves, cut into suitable pieces, and confined by boards: occasionally, but rarely,' he adds, these books are made of thin copperplates.' All the nations on the other side of the Ganges seem to make use of the bark of trees and shrubs for these purposes; the other Asiatic nations on this side the Ganges, the black inhabitants of the most southern parts of India excepted, make their paper of old cotton rags and stuff, and their method differs little from ours in Europe, except that it is more simple, and the instruments less refined. Yet it is very remarkable that what is called India paper (used in taking off our finest copper-plate impressions) cannot be manufactured in England.

We come now to the modern art of papermaking in Europe; or the important and admirable process by which our worn-out clothes and linen are converted into an economical but most efficient, convenient, and often elegant substance, to receive the labors of the pen and the operations of the press. Who first suggested this appropriation of linen rags it seems at this period hopeless to attempt to discover; certainly he bestowed on mankind a service barely exceeded by that of the invention of printing. Various dates have been assigned for its origin. Ray and Milnes (in his Hortus Philosophicus) date it about the year 1470, when it first appeared in this part of the world, says the former, at Guernsey; two persons, named Anthony and Michael, having brought it to Basil, from Galicia in Spain. It would seem most probable indeed that, like much of our other knowledge, this travelled from the east, soon after the taking of Constantinople. Rabelais, who died in 1553, mentions hempen cloth as having been known about 100 years before his time: yet Mabellon and others find paper MSS, dated, they say, so far back as the middle of the fourteenth century; and Dr. Prideaux affirms that he has seen a registration of some acts of John Cranden, prior of Ely, made on paper, which bears date in the fourteenth year of Edward II., i. e. Anno Domini 1320. He however considers that this manufac ture was brought to us from the east, through ue Saracenic conquests in Spain.

In our own times we have seen, in the invention of the new machinery applied to papermaking, the most important addition that has been made to the art; and such an one as nearly equals in importance the original suggestion of making it from rags. At such a period we must indulge a smile at the standing definition of linen, or European paper' in the most extensive of our modern Encyclopedias, as chiefly made of linen rags beaten to a pulp with great hammers, and the soil carried off by a continual supply of fresh water, conveyed among the pulp in little troughs, till it be rendered perfectly white. The fact is hammers have, been entirely discontinued in this country for these forty years, and long before the invention of the machine.

The modern process may be considered as divided into paper-making as conducted by the hand-and by the machine: the greater part of the best writing and printing papers taken together being, perhaps, at length made by the latter; for so strong is the attachment to particular names, with regard to writing papers, that though an article every way as perfect and beautiful can be manufactured by the machine, an equal quantity at least of that paper separately considered is made by the old method.

I. OF PAPER-MAKING BY THE HAND. Even this, as conducted in the more respectable establishments, will not fail to strike an intelligent stranger to the process as a surprisingly simple and beautiful art. He may be first led into the rag-house, where a number of women and children will be found employed in cutting and sorting the washed rags.

Rags are sold to the paper-makers sorted into four or five different kinds: No. 1, sometimes called London superfine, being all linen, and reserved for the finest paper. No. 5 is generally the coarsest sort, and includes canvas; a sixth sort called 'rag-bagging' is, however, sometimes kept separate.Colored rags' include cotton of all colors except blue, which is kept apart for making blue paper.

Some mills use a duster, made of wire net, in the form of a cylinder, four feet in diameter and five feet long. It is put in motion on pivots in connexion with some part of the general machinery, and enclosed in a tight box, into which it casts off the dust. In different establishments very different degrees of care are exercised in the sorting some separate cloth of hemp from cloth of flax; others keep hemps and seams apart; and think that the coarseness of the cloth should be considered, and the degree of wear it has had attended to; for, if rags which are almost new be mixed with those that are much worn, the one will not be reduced to a pulp in the mill, whilst the other will be so attenuated as to be carried away by the water, to the real loss of the manufacturer, and the deterioration of the article made; for the particles carried off will be those which would give it a smooth and velvet-like softness. Nor is this all a pulp of uneven tenuity produces those cloudy papers in which are seen at intervals parts more or less clear, and more or less weak, occasioned by the flakes assembled on the mould not being sufficiently tempered and diluted together.

The general furniture of the rag-house is a number of chests or boxes divided into five or more separate cases for the different sorts of rags; and in some cases having a large knife fixed on the top each woman has a piece of pasteboard hung from her girdle and extended on her knees, upon which, with the assistance of the knife, she unrips seams and stitches, and scrapes off all filth. Whatever can be used, after being well shaken, is distributed according to the degree of fineness, and the women throw the rest at their feet. The more exact manufacturers have six cases, i. e. for the superfine, the fine, the seams and stitches of the fine; the middling, the seams and stitches of the middling; and the coarse; without including the very coarse parts, reserved for brown and other coarse papers.

Sometimes the rags are bleached in the first stage of the process, or immediately after they are sorted, and Mr. Campbell took out a patent for a method of performing this in 1792. It is similar to the process of bleaching cotton thread. He directs that the rags should, before they are put into the receiver to be bleached, contain not more than their own weight of fair water. They should first be opened by a machine, called by the cotton manufacturers a devil, or some machine of that nature, and they are to be distributed in the receivers, in layers spread on frames, so that they will not come in contact with each other, or they may be placed in the body of the receiver, and have stirrers or agitators, provided to expose every part of them to the action of the bleaching gas. After the process, which must be concluded as soon as ever the rags are sufficiently bleached, lest the gas should act upon and injure their quality, they are to be washed in water, and will be ready for the mill.

Many manufacturers and printers consider that this mode of bleaching the rags makes them rotten; that it injures the quality of the paper, which it doubtless does if carried too far; and that it enables makers to pass off an article of inferior staple. This is no doubt the case in some instances; but, with all the just suspicion of bleached papers that obtains in many quarters, bleaching may clearly be delicately and judiciously applied; though whether in this stage or in the state of half-stuff we will not here decide; and it is certainly capable of making the same good materials into a better paper, when well managed. In many mills printing papers are bleached by muriate of lime inserted in the washing engine.

We may now describe the paper-mill in its principal parts. This is represented in the plates, PAPER-MAKING I. and II., through which, for the convenience of arrangement, the figures run on. Fig. 1 is a front, and fig. 2 a side elevation of the mill; the same letter expressing the same part in both. AB is the great water-wheel, giving motion to the whole on its shaft or axis C; a crown, or face wheel, DD is framed, and gives motion to the pinion G; this is fixed on the lower part of a vertical axis EF, which goes up into the upper room of the mill, and has two face wheels I and K fixed upon it; these actuate two pinions LM, upou