The foundation of Roman ways was made of rough stone joined together with cement; upon this was laid another layer, consisting of small stones and cement, to plane the inequalities of the lower stratum in which the stones of the upper pavement were fixed: for there can be no very durable pacement, but a double one. Arbuthnot.

From these their politics our quidnunes seek, And Saturday's the learning of the week: These labouring wits, like paviors, mend our ways With heavy, huge, repeated, flat, essays; Ram their course nonsense down, though ne'er so dull,

And hem at every thump upon your scull. Young.

PAVEMENT, Lat. pavimentum, from pavio, to beat, the construction of streets, highways, or ground-floors in such a way as that they may be conveniently walked upon, &c.

According to Isidorus the Carthaginians were the first people who paved their towns with stones. 188 years after the expulsion of the kings Appius Claudius Cacus paved the greater part of the city of Rome, and constructed the Via Appia. At length all the high roads leading from the city were laid with stone, and, by degrees, continued throughout the whole empire; and the remains of them are found, in a greater or less degree of preservation, in the different provinces of which that immense empire was composed. Several of these public roads, besides the Appian, received their names from those of the parties who had dictated their construction. Aurelius Cotta founded, in the year 512, after the foundation of Rome, the Aurelian way; Flaminius the Flaminian way; and the Emilian way was executed by the command of Emilius. The censors superintended the forming of these highways, and directed their situations, &c.

With regard to the pavements in the interior of the Roman edifices, they styled such as were constructed upon stages of timber work contignata pavimenta; and those made of oaken plank were denominated by them coassationes. The opulent Romans appear to have had portable pavements carried about to pave their tents in time of war, as by Julius Cæsar. These were chiefly of mosaic.

rag stone.

In Great Britain the pavement of the principal streets, &c., is generally of flint or rubble-stone, while churches, courts, stables, domestic offices, &c., are paved with tiles, bricks, flags, or fire stone; sometimes with a kind of free stone or In some continental churches the pavement is of marble, and sometimes of mosaic, as in the cathedral of St. Mark at Venice, &c. In France the public roads, in common with the streets, courts, &c., are all paved with gris or gritt (a kind of free stone), and the elegance and convenience arising from the use of flag

stones in the streets of English towns are unknown even in Paris, where the pedestrian is in constant danger of being run down by the pole of a car

riage.

At Amsterdam and the chief cities of Holland they call their brick pavement the burgher-master's pavement, to distinguish it from the stone or flint pavement, which usually takes up the middle of the street, and which serves for carriages; the brick which borders it being destined for the passage of people on foot. Pavements of free stone, flint, and flags, in streets, &c., are laid dry, i. e. in a bed of sand; those of courts, stables, ground-rooms, &c., are laid in a mortar of lime and sand; or in lime and cement, especially if there be vaults or cellars underneath. Some masons, after laying a floor dry, especially of brick, spread a thin mortar over it; sweeping it backwards and forwards to fill up the joints. The several kinds of pavement are as various as the materials of which they are composed, and whence they derive the name by which they are distinguished.

PAVETTA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, and tetrandria class of plants; natural order forty-seventh, stellate: COR. monopetalous and funnel-shaped above: the stigma carved the berry dispermous. Species seven, natives of China and of India.

PAVIA, a province or delegation of Austrian Italy, surrounded by those of Milan, Lodi, and Parma; and in the government of Milan. Its surface, for the most part level, is so fertile as to have procured for it the name of the Garden of the Milanese. It contains 320 square miles, and is watered by the Po, the Ficino, and the Olana. The vine and rice are the chief objects of culture. Silk is likewise raised in large quantities; the pastures feed fine cattle, and the cheese of the district forms an important branch of export. The trade of the province is carried on by the Po and the Ticino, and greatly facilitated by the canal, which forms a communication between Milan and Pavia. The climate is mild and salubrious, but has been rendered somewhat unhealthy by the irrigation connected with the extended cultivation of rice.

PAVIA, the ancient Ticinum or Papia, a large town of Austrian Italy, the capital of the dele gation of the same name, in the government of Milan. It is situated on an eminence on the banks of the Ticino, four miles above its conflu ence with the Po. The streets are broad and straight, and most of them contain respectable edifices; but, with the exception of the churches, nothing of splendid or imposing architecture appears. Its length, from east to west, is about a mile. In the Strada Nuova, or principal street, are the mouldering palaces of the Pavian nobility, mingled with shops, churches, colleges, caffes, theatres, and hospitals. In the morning this long but not spacious avenue (though the centre of the city, and indeed the city itself, for the lateral streets are few and inferior), is still lifeless,' says lady Morgan, and exhibits but little of the bustle of trade, which, we are assured, was ruined under the late changes. In the evening the Strada Nuova is the Corso, not only for the few old carriages with the few old nobles

who occupy them, but the lounge of all the young students of the university, whom we at first took for military à demi-solde. Nothing, indeed, can be more military than their air and step, set off by spruce large cocked hats; for the university of Pavia has not yet resumed the monkish frock, and the youth have still the air of the éléves of the polytechnic schools of Paris. Mixed with the carriages of the nobles are the pedestrians of all classes and ages, all coming forth 'per pigliar il fresco,' as they call swallowing dust, and perspiring between rows of heated walls, which render the street an oven. Meantime the Austrian officers lounge on benches under the extended awnings of the caffes, smoke their cigars in the faces of the passengers, and talk German. 'The Strada Nuova terminates the length of the city at the gate and bridge of the Ticino. This bridge is one of the most curious objects in Italy, and one of the most striking monuments of the energy and activity of the Italians of the middle age in all works of public utility. It was raised in 1351, when Giovanni di Mandello was Podesta of Pavia. It is 300 feet long by twelve wide; and is covered by a curious roof, supported by 100 columns of granite. When we saw the Ponte del Ticino it was crowded with little oratories and temporary chapels, mostly consecrated to the Virgin, but raised equally for exciting piety and extorting charity; as each shrine was guarded by a very noisy solicitor, in a pilgrim's habit, demanding carità' in the name of the Madonna, and of all the saints who had, since the Restoration, taken the structure under their special protection. A curious circumstance was that, while one end of the bridge was guarded by Austrian soldiers, Doganieri, police, &c. &c. &c., the other was protected by the forces of his Sardinian majesty: the Ticino being the actual limit between the legitimate possessions of these respective autocrats. How long it will please Heaven to preserve this partition of its divine grace,' seems at present very doubtful.'

From the main street others of greater antiquity branch off at right angles, where all is sad, desolate, and silent; some terminate in piazze or squares, opening before vast and cumbrous palaces, with windows half sashed, doors hanging from their hinges, balconies mouldering over beautiful but fallen porticoes, and the grass shooting up every where between the pavement. In one of these by-streets is shown the site of the imperial palace when Pavia was a royal capital. This was a palace of Theodoric, often cited in the story of various barbarous invasions. It was standing in all its Gothic grandeur in the eleventh century, when a popular insurrection against the tyranny of the emperor Henry II. levelled it to the ground.

"Of the extraordinary edifices which gave to Pavia the name of 'città delle cento torre,' the number now is considerably diminished. Of those that still remain, one is most fearfully attached to the Casa Belcrede, and has an elevation of fifty-six metres; another belongs to the Casa Maino-and both are considered as marks of great distinction and nobility. The original intention of these turrets was internal defence,

before gunpowder or artillery was known. But this primitive design soon degenerated into a spirit of rivalry and ambition; and a tower adjoining to a nobleman's house became a necessary appendage to his grandeur-a distinctive proof of his rank and consequence ;-in a word, the landmark of the most puerile vanity. In one of these towers (now no more), in the time of Theodoric, king of the Goths, the celebrated Boethius was shut up, and there he composed his treatise De Consolatione Philosophiæ. The tower, as long as it existed, bore his name. On the site where it stood now stands the Casa Malaspina, whose very enlightened lord has placed at the entrance to his palace a marble monument and bust of the illustrious philosopher, with an appropriate inscription, by the abbé Morcelli, It is well known than the Roman consul only left this tower to be executed on the space near the church of St. Peter in ciel d'oro. Another of these towers, now fortunately laid low, was called Torre del Pizzo in Giu, from its being a reversed pyramid.'

Joseph II. suppressed many of the forty-six convents once seen here; and the government of the kingdom of Italy put down the few that remained. The churches, however, though half shut up and unfit for service, were seldom absolutely destroyed. Near the site of the palace of the Lombard kings stands the ancient Basilicum of St. Michael. History asserts it to be contemporary with the grim king, Grimoaldi, of the sixth century. Contrary to the Lombard manner, it is not built in pietra-cotta, but in marble. Its curious and ponderous façade is covered with bas-reliefs that are of infinite value, for the manners they record. In one compartment the angel Gabriel, a most dolorous figure, with a face as long as if he belonged to the house of Austria, is playing the fiddle. In another there is a representation of the Annunciation, which savours of the Arianism at that time predominant among the Lombards. The angelic messenger is seen presenting a large full grown bambino to the Virgin Mary, who smiles most terribly upon him. Every where monsters, the most strangely deformed, obtrude themselves among Christian seraphim and cherubim. With this barbarous architecture are combined some fine arches of pure Gothic, introduced at a later period into Italy, and called by the Italians, when thus employed, stilo misto. The dark, dank entrance, or portico, of this very ancient building, is painted in fresco, in forms so terrible, as greatly to add to its awful gloom. They are by Andrino D'Edesia, a contemporary of Giotto's; though one might well suppose them coeval with the church's foundation. The interior of this temple is equally gloomy, and almost as barbarous, as the exterior. There is one spot curiously paved with ancient Mosaic, where, it is said, the Lombard kings were crowned, when Pavia, the grave of two dynasties, was the capital and royal city of the kingdom of Italy.

The cathedral of Pavia is a vast and ugly edifice, begun under the episcopal sway of cardinal Visconti, brother to the then reigning duke of Milan, Giovanni Galeazzo Visconti, in the fifteenth century, and lately repaired extensively.

The church of San Pietro in ciel d'oro, or of the Augustinians, though suppressed by the emperor Joseph II., contained the tomb of Boethius, and the body of St. Augustin :—history at least states that king Luitprand had his precious remains conveyed thither from Africa; but Mr. Eustace chills the reverence with which it would naturally be approached, by his fears, that in stead of the dust of the Christian Plato, the tribute we wish to offer to virtue and wisdom should be erroneously paid to the putrid dust of some Northern invader, or half-savage Lombard.'

San Pietro in ciel d'oro is the scene of one of the pleasant adventures of Boccacio's Pavese hero, Messer Torrello d'Istria di Pavia; and the lovers of Boccacio in Pavia, according to the lively traveller we have already quoted, numerous there as throughout Italy, point out the spot where they suppose that humorous and most philosophical genius to have placed the sumptuous bed of Torrello, where he was found by the monks, the victim or rather the protegé of necromancy.

The university of Pavia, to which it owes its title of the Insubrian Athens, has the testimony of the imperial diploma of Charles IV. to its importance in the fourteenth century, but is said to have been founded by Charlemagne. To Pavia, through the long course of the middle ages, all the learned of Europe occasionally came; wrestlers in metaphysics, and gladiators in polemics, from all parts of France and Italy in particular; while the Alciati and Baldus's drew disciples to their schools, from the most opposite quarters of the world. At one period, in the time of Giasone Maino, Pavia contained 3000 students; but it declined in numbers and reputation, like every thing else in Italy,under the Spanish and Austrian influence; until, towards the end of the eighteenth century, it was so fallen, that even its former reputation was almost forgotten; and this splendid establishment was without a library, a museum, collections, or any means of affording assistance to public education. The wise and excellent count Firmin, minister plenipotentiary in Lombardy, was the first to revive institutions once the glory of northern Italy; and with the assistance of Boscovich, Spallanzani, Tissot, Frank, Volta, Scarpa, &c. &c., he restored to the university much of its ancient consequence.

When Buonaparte became emperor, he visited Pavia (1805) on his way to his coronation at Milan, and particularly noticed the university. The pomp of this journey, and the manner of his reception in the capital of Lombard kings, left far behind the recorded visitations of Charlemagne and Charles V. The rector, at the head of its members, received and harangued him at the gates; terminating his oration with the following words: Da Carlo il Grande ebbe questo celebre Archiginnasio li suoi primi principj; da Napoleone il Grande abbia la perfetta sua gloria ed eterna stabiltà! Napoleon is said scarcely to have permitted the eloquent Rettore to conclude his oratorical eloge, when, rushing by the learned corps, he ran with his natural vivacity, petulance, and curiosity, from class room to class-room, while his splendid military suite

6

toiled after him in vain.' Even the attendant professors found his celerity of movement and enquiry too much; and could scarcely find time, or breath, to follow and answer him. 'Che scuola è questa?-he asked of the first school he entered. It was the class of metaphysics. He sneered and took snuff; then, turning to one of the boys, he asked Qual è la differenza fra la somiglia e la morte?' meaning thereby, What is the difference between sleep and death? This naturalization of the French word 'sommeil' was too much for the boy; and he turned for assistance to his learned master, who was as much at a loss as his pupil to comprehend the mystery of these royal metaphysics. The case, however, was urgent for a professor to confess ignorance would never do; but not to understand the emperor was still worse; so down he plunged into a mortal disquisition on death, till Napoleon, perceiving he was not understood, and that the metaphysician was talking nonsense on a nonsensical subject, turned from him petulantly, uttering the word 'Bêtise!' too well pronounced to be misunderstood by any present!-He then hurried to another class-room, with his usual question of Che Scuola !' &c. &c. It was the class of his favorite mathematics, and his eyes sparkled at the intelligence! He looked round him for a moment with great satisfaction, then snatching a book from one of the young students' hands, he gave him a problem to work. When the boy had finished the task assigned him by the imperial mathematician, his majesty looked it over, and said, Non è così.' You are wrong. The boy boldly persisted that it was 'così,' and that he was right. Napoleon snatched the book and pencil out of his hand; and the master coming in to the emperor's assistance, endeavoured to convince him his pupil was not mistaken; to the infinite (and not concealed) satisfaction of the rest of the class. The emperor then took the slate; and, while marshal Jourdain and others stood yawning behind him, he began to work the problem himself; till, self-convinced of his error he returned the slate, with a Sì sì, è bene;' but with the sulky air of a school-boy, who had lost his place at the head of his class. He then proceeded to another school :-It was the school of Volta, the Newton of Electricity. Napoleon ran up to him with open arms, and begged his class might be drawn out. To every proof of their extraordinary progress, the emperor clapped the venerable professor familiarly on the shoulder, exclaiming Bravo, Volta! bravo! vous êtes digne d' éléver la jeunesse! You are worthy to bring up youth.' It was in this class that the emperor perceiving a little boy gazing on him with all the fearless curiosity of childhood, took him by the hand, and asked his name. The animated countenance and ready answers of the boy pleased him; he wrote down his name in his tablets. Shortly after he sent for the lad to Milan; and, until his own fortunes fell, he never lost sight of him. This youth became one of the most distinguished officers in the Italian service.' The University of Pavia was now an object of munificent protection to the new government of the kingdom of Italy; the imperial visit of Napoleone il grande,' being not among the least

causes of its aggrandizement.' As a building, the exterior of the university is remarkable for its elegant simplicity: its courts and colonnades are antiquated, and have a cloistral air that suits well with the whole. Its porticoes are spacious; and are encrusted with monuments, raised to the honor of the most illustrious of its deceased members. The cabinet of natural history is described as magnificent. The gallery of animals is near 200 feet long, and the subjects are raised in successive tiers or stages along the walls; an elephant, and some other of the larger races, occupy the centre of the room. The library was founded in the last years of Maria Theresa's reign, under count Firmin: but it owes its principal wealth to Joseph II., and to the additions made to it by the Italian government. To the activity and liberality of this government, the university is also indebted for its fine botanical garden, the hothouses, and a collection of exotics from New Holland. The corso, the opera, the church, include all the occupation and amusement of Pavia. Its great attraction is its university; and the youth who compose it, like the students of Turin and Bologna, all seem to belong to Europe.

The far-famed Certosa of Pavia, an abbey for Carthusian monks, is four Italian miles from the city, and was built and endowed for the express purpose of expiating the death of his uncle, or, as the Italian chronicle has it, ad espiazione delle sue colpe, e redenzione dell' anima'-by Galeazzo Veranti. Galeazzo was one of the most pious sovereigns of the fourteenth century. He made pilgrimages to the shrine of the Virgin at the head of 2000 armed men (his ordinary guard, says the historian); and though such acts of piety were always followed by some terrible crime, yet he was the special favorite of all the bishops of Lombardy; and when he laid the first stone of the Certosa, in 1396, he issued forth from his castle of Pavia, attended by the bishops of Pavia, of Novarro, of Feltre, and of Vicenza, with a body of the principal ecclesiastics of his dominions. The church and monastery rose with incredible speed and splendor; and in three years it was sufficiently advanced to receive the prior and twenty-four monks of the order of the Chartreuse. The immense estates granted by its founder rendered it one of the richest convents in Italy; and a codicil to his will, intimating that the monks should lay by a sum annually for its decoration and improvement, added to its beauty and richness. Successive donations still further increased the wealth of the house; the genius and talent of ages contributed to its ultimate perfection, and the cloisters of the Certosa became the studio of Luino, Giacomo della Porta, Procaccini, Sacchi, Guercino, and others of equal note and ability. Commenced in the fourteenth century, the artists of Italy were still working at it in the eighteenth; yet the labor of 400 years scarcely accounts for the immensity of its details, its sculptures, its carvings, its statuary, its works in gold, bronze, ivory, and ebony, its accumulations of precious stones, of mosaics, of pictures, of frescoes, and all the wonders of wealth and art, which go to the perfect ing its chapels, its choirs, and its sacristies, its altars, monuments, and mausoleums. Even the

Lavatojo, the washing-room of the monks, is incrusted with basso-relievo, with busts and gems of the most exquisite workmanship; and its magnificent window of stained glass employed for years the genius of Christoforo Matteis, who finished it in 1477. In the midst of its silent and overpowering magnificence rises the mausoleum of its founder. This superb monument was raised by the monks, a century after his death; to give a hint perhaps, to his successors, the Sforzas, to go and do likewise! It was begun by Pellegrini in 1490, and was finished by Giacomo della Porta in 1562; its arabesque foliage and delicate ornaments were by Christoforo Romano; and the whole is of the most precious Parian marble.

The cloisters of the Certosa, where every thing is simple and solemn, contrast finely with the splendor of the temple. They are found behind a noble fabric, once occupied by the prior, and reserved for the reception of strangers and pilgrims of rank; and are encrusted with tracery and relievoes in terra-cotta, serving as a portico to twenty-four isolated houses. These were the cells of the monks; each cell has two rooms, a little garden, with a fountain and marble seat. A wheel, on the outside, turned to receive their food; for there was no communication between the brethren, except in the church. The prior's apartments are spacious and princely; a vast room in the attic was said to have been the temporary prison of Francis I., after the memorable battle of Pavia. One of the first acts of the reforming system of Joseph II. was the suppression of this convent. The prior and monks were pensioned off, and obliged to return to that society which they had vowed to abandon for ever. Four priests were appointed to officiate in the church on Sundays and holidays; a sacristan was named to watch over and keep it in order. Except a few pictures removed by the emperor to Vienna, and a few by the French, the church and convent remain rich and picturesque, as in the days of their greatest prosperity.

The trade of Pavia is insignificant, and consists principally in silk and wine. It is the see of a bishop, and eighteen miles south of Milan and eighty west of Mantua.

PAVILION, n. s. & v. a. Fr. pavillon. A tent; a temporary or moveable house; to furnish