The shortening power of the secondary accent exemplified in the uncertainty and inconsis- tency of Mr. Sheridan and Dr. Kenrick in their division of words into syllables Syllabication different according to the different ends to be attained by it Byllabication exhibiting the sound of a word, depending, in some measure, on the nature of the The almost total independence of the English quantity on that of the Greek and Latin, exem- plified by an enumeration of most of the dissyllables in our language derived from the Latin The only possible case in which we can argue from the Latin quantity to the English Dissyllables from the Saxon and French languages enumerated- Of the quantity of unaccented syllables ending with a vowel Uncertainty and inconsistency of Dr. Kenrick in his notation of the quantity of these vowels ibid: Uncertainty and inconsistency of Mr. Sheridan and Dr. Kenrick in marking the quantity Exception to the general rule of pronouncing these syllables when e is followed by r Uncertainty of our best orthoepists in their syllabication of such words, exemplified by a list Tendency of o before r to go into the same obscurity as e, exemplified in the diversity and 551 2. To these may be adden certain combinations of letters sometimes used in printing; as ct, st f, sb, sh, sk, fi, ss, si, ssi, fi, fi, fil, and &c. or and per se and, or rather at per se and; cl, st, fi, fi, si, sb, sh, sk, f, as, si, svi, fi, fi, &. 3. Our letters, says Dr. Johnson, are commonly reckoned twenty-four, because anciently i and j, as well as u and v, were expressed by the same character; but as these letters, which had always different powers, have now different forms, our alphabet may be properly said to consist of twentysix letters. 4. In considering the sounds of these first principles of language, we find that some are so simple and unmixed, that there is nothing required but the opening of the mouth to make stood, and to form different sounds. Whence they have the names of vowels, or to under or vocal sounds. On the contrary, we find that there are others, whose pronunciation depends on the particular application and use of every part of the mouth, as the teeth, the lips, the tongue, the pa late, &c. which yet cannot make any one perfect sound but by their union with those vocal sounds; and these are called consonants, or letters sounding with other letters. Definition of Vowels and Consonants. 5. Vowels are generally reckoned to be five in number; namely, a, e, i, o, u; y and w are called Towels when they end a syllable or word, and consonants when they begin one. 6. The definition of a vowel, as little liable to exception as any, seems to be the following: A vowel is a simple sound formed by a continued effusion of the breath, and a certain conformation of the mouth, without any alteration in the position, or any motion of the organs of speech, from the moment the vocal sound commences till it ends. 7. A consonant may be defined to be an interruption of the effusion of vocal sound, arising from the application of the organs of speech to each other. 8. Agreeably to this definition, vowels may be divided into two kinds, the simple and compound. The simple a, e, o, are those which are formed by one conformation of the organs only; that is, the organs remain exactly in the same position at the end as at the beginning of the letter; whereas in the compound vowels i and u, the organs alter their position before the letter is completely sounded; way, these letters, when commencing a syllable, do not only require a different position of the organs in order to form them perfectly, but demand such an application of the tongue to the roof of the mouth, as is inconsistent with the nature of a pure vowel; for the first of these letters, i, when sounded alone, or ending a syllable with the accent upon it, is a real diphthong, edinposed of the sounds of a in father, and of e in the, exactly correspondent to the sound of the mame; and when this letter commences a syllable, as in min-ion, pin-ion, &c. the sound of e with which it terminates is squeezed into a consonant sound, like the double e heard in queen, different om the simple sound of that letter in queen, and this squeezed sound in the commencing make it exactly similar to y in the same situation; which, by all grammarians, is acknowledged to be a consonant.* The latter of these compound vowels, u, when initial, and not shortened by a consonant, commences with this squeezed sound of e equivalent to the y, and ends with a sound given to oo in woo and ca, which makes its name in the alphabet exactly similar to the pronoun you.t If, therefore, the ammon definition of a vowel be just, these two letters are so far from being simple vowels, that they may more properly be called semi-consonant diphthongs. 9. That y and we are consonants when they begin a word, and vowels when they end one, is generally acknowledged by the best grammarians; and yet Dr. Lowth has told us, that w is equivalent to oo; but if this were the case, it would always admit of the particle an before it: for though we have no word in the language which commences with these letters, we plainly perceive, that if we had such a word, it would readily admit of an before it, and consequently that these let ters are not equivalent to c. Thus we find, that the common opinion, with respect to the double capacity of these letters, is perfectly just. 10. Besides the vowels already mentioned, there is another simple vowel sound found under the bo in the words woo and coo; these letters have, in these two words, every property of a pure vowel, but when found in food, mood, &c. and in the word too, pronounced like the adjective two: here the oo has a squeezed sound, occasioned by contracting the mouth, so as to make the lips nearly touch each other; and this makes it, like the i and u, not so much a double vowel, as a sound between a vowel and a consonant. Classification of Vowels and Consonants. 11. Vowels and consonants being thus defined, it will be necessary, in the next place, to arrange them into such classes as their similitudes and specific differences seem to require. 12. Letters, therefore, are naturally divisible into vowels and consonants. 13. The vowels are, a, e, i, o, u, andy and wo when ending a syllable. 14. The consonants are, b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, x, and y and w when beginning & syllable. 15. The vowels may be subdivided into such as are simple and pure, and into such as are com pound and impure. The simple or pure vowels are such as require only one conformation of the organs to form them, and no motion in the organs while forming. 16. The compound or impure vowels are such as require more than one conformation of the or gans to form them, and a motion in the organs while forming. These observations premised, we may call the following scheme 17. Two vowels forming but one syllable are generally called a diphthong, and three a triphthong: these are the following *How so accurate a grammarian as Dr. Lowth could pronounce so definitely on the nature of y and insist on its be fng always a vowel, can only be accounted for by considering the small attention which is generally paid to this part of grammar. His words are these: The same sound which we express by the initial y, our Saxon ancestors in many instances expressed by the vowel e; as cower, your; and by the vowel i; is it yet acknowledged to be a vowel in these latter; how then can the young. In the word yew the initial y has precisely the same sound with i in the words view, licu, adieu: the i is which nas the very same sound, possibly be a consonant in the former? Its initial sound is generally like that of i in shire, or ee nearly; it is formed by the opening of the mouth without any motion or contact of the parts: in a word, it has every property of a vowel, and not one of a consonant." Introd, to Eng. Gram. page 3. Thus far the learned bishop; who has too fixed a fame to suffer any diminution by a mistake in so trifling a part af literature as this: but it may be asked, if y has every property of a vowel and not one of a consonant, why, when it begins a word, does it not admit of the euphonic article an before it? An ignorance of the real composition of u, and a want of knowing that it partook of the nature of a consonant, has occasioned a great diversity and uncertainty in prefixing the indefinite article an before it. Our ancestors, judg.... ↑ ing of its nature from its name, never suspected that it was not a pure vowel, and constantly prefixed the article an be. fore nouns beginning with this letter: as an union, a useful book. They were confirmed in this opinion by finding the en always adapted to the short u, as an umpire, an umbrella, without ever dreaming that the short u is a pure vowel, and essentially different from the long one. But the moderns, not resting in the name of a letter, and consulting their ears rather than their eyes, lave frequently placed the a instead of ar before the long u, and we have seen a union, a university, a useful book, from some of the most respectable pens of the present age. Nor can we doubt a moment of the propriety of this orthography, when we reflect that these words actually begin to the ear with y, and might be spelled younion, youniversity, youseful, and can therefore no more admix of an before them than year and th. See Remarks on the word An in this Dictionary. Consonants enumerated and distinguished into Classes. 18. The consonants are divisible into mutes, semi-vowels, and liquids. 19. The mutes are such as emit no sound without a vowel, as b, p, t, d, k, and c and g hard. 20. The semi-vowels are such as emit a sound without the concurrence of a vowel, as f, v, 8, 2, 3, g soft or j. 21. The liquids are such as flow into, or unite easily with the mutes, as l, m, n, r. 22. But, besides these, there is another classification of the consonants, of great importance to a just idea of the nature of the letters, and that is, into such as are sharp or flat, and simple or aspi rated. 23. The sharp consonants are, p, f, t, s, k, e hard. 24. The flat consonants are, b, c, d, z, g hard. 25. The simple consonants are those which have always the sound of one letter unmixed with others, as, b, p, f, v, k, g hard, and soft, or j. 26. The mixed or aspirated consonants are those which have sometimes a hiss or aspiration joined with them, which mingles with the letter, and alters its sound, as t in motion, d in soldier, s in mission, and zin azure. 27. There is another distinction of consonants arising either from the seat of their formation, or from those organs which are chiefly employed in forming them. The best distinction of this kind seems to be that which divides them into labials, dentals, gutturals, and nasals. 28. The labials are, b, p, f, v. The dentals are, t, d, s, z, and soft g or j. The gutturals are k, q,' e hard, and g hard. The nasals are, m, n, and ng. 29. These several properties of the consonants may be exhibited at one view in the following table which may be called 30. Vowels and consonants being thus defined and arranged, we are the better enabled to enter upon an inquiry into their different powers, as they are differently combined with each other. But previous to this, that nothing may be wanting to form a just idea of the first principles of pronunciation, it may not be improper to show the organic formation of each letter. Organic Formation of the Letters. 31. Though I think every mechanical account of the organic formation of the letters rather curious than useful, yet, that nothing which can be presented to the eye may be wanting to inform the ear, I shall in this follow those who have been at the pains to trace every letter to its seat, and mako us, as it were, touch the sounds we articulate. Organic Formation of the Vowels. 32. It will be necessary to observe, that there are three long sounds of the letter a, which are formed by a greater or less expansion of the internal parts of the mouth. 33. The German a, heard in ball, wall, &c. is formed by a strong and grave expression of the breath through the mouth, which is open nearly in a circular form, while the tongue, contracting itself to the root, as to make way for the sound, almost rests upon the under jaw. 34. The Italian a, heard in father, closes the mouth a little more than the German a; and by raising the lower jaw, widening the tongue, and advancing it a little nearer to the lips, renders its sound less hollow and deep. 35. The slender a, or that heard in lane, is formed in the mouth still higher than the last; and in pronouncing it, the lips, as if to give it a slender sound, dilate their aperture horizontally; while the tongue, to assist this narrow emission of breath, widens itself to the cheeks, raises itself nearer the palate, and by these means a less hollow sound than either of the former is produced. 36. The e in e-qual is formed by dilating the tongue a little more, and advancing it nearer to the palate and the lips, which produces the slenderest vowel in the language; for the tongue is, in the formation of this letter, as close to the palate as possible, without touching it; as the moment the tongue touches the palate, the squeezed sound of ee in the and meet is formed, which, by its description, must partake of the sound of the consonant y. 57. The iin i-dol is formed by uniting the sound of the Italian a in father and the e in e-qual, and pronouncing them as closely together as possible. See Directions to foreigners at the beginning of this book, page 11. 33. Theo in o-pen is formed by nearly the same position of the organs as the a in wa-ter; but the tongue is advanced a little more into the middle of the mouth, the lips are protruded, and form a rand aperture like the form of the letter, and the voice is not so deep in the mouth as when a is formed, but advances to the middle or hollow of the mouth. 59. The u in u-nil is formed by uniting the squeezed sound ee to a simple vowel sound, heard in ms and coo; the oo in these words is formed by protruding the lips a little more than in e, forming e C smaller aperture with them, and, instead of swelling the voice in the middle of the mouth, bringing it as forward as possible to the lips. 40. Y final in try is formed like i: and w final in now, like the 00, which has just been described. In this view of the organic formation of the vowels we find that a, e, and o, are the only simple or pure vowels: that i is a diphthong, and that is a semi-consonant. If we were inclined to contrive a scale for measuring the breadth or narrowness, or, as others term it, the openness or closeness of the vowels, we might begin with e open, as Mr. Elphinston calls it, and which he announces to be the closest of all the vocal powers. In the pronunciation of this letter we find the aperture of the mouth extended on each side; the lips almost closed, and the sound issuing horizontally. The slender a in waste opens the mouth a little wider. The a in father opens the mouth still more without contracting the corners. The German a heard in wall, not only opens the mouth wider than the former a, but contracts the corners of the mouth so as to make the aperture approach nearer to a circle, while the o opens the mouth still more, and contracts the corners so as to make it the os rotundum, a picture of the letter it sounds. It, therefore, the other vowels were, like o, to take their forms from the aperture of the mouth in pronouncing them, the German a ought necessarily to have a figure as nearly approaching the o in form as it does in sound; that is, it ought to have that elliptical form which approaches nearest to the circle; as the a of the Italians, and that of the English in father, ought to form ovals, in exact proportion to the breadth of their sounds; the English a in waste ought to have a narroweroval; the e in the ought to have the curve of a parabola, and the squeezed sound of ee in seen a right line; or to reduce these lines to solids, the o would be a perfect globe, the German a an oblate spheroid like the figure of the earth, the Italian a like an egg, the English slender a a Dutch skittle, the e a rolling-pin, and the double e a cylinder. Organic Formation of the Consonants. 41. The best method of showing the organic formation of the consonants will be to class them to such pairs as they naturally fail into, and then, by describing one, we shall nearly describe its fellow; by which means the labour will be lessened, and the nature of the consonants better perceived. The onsonants that fall into pairs are the following: 42. Holder, who wrote the most elaborately and philosophically upon this subject, tells us, in his Elements of Speech, that when we only whisper we cannot distinguish the first rank of these letters from the second. It is certain the difference between them is very nice; the upper letters seeming to have only a smarter, brisker appulse of the organs than the lower; which may not improperly be distinguished by sharp and flat. The most marking distinction between them will be found to be a sort of guttural murmur, which precedes the latter letters when we wish to pronounce them forcibly, but not the former. Thus if we close the lips, and put the fingers on them to keep them shut, and strive to pronounce the p, no sound at all will be heard: but in striving to pronounce the b we shall find a murmuring sound from the throat, which seems the commencement of the letter; and if we do but stop the breath by the appulse of the organs, in order to pronounce with greater force, the same may be observed of the rest of the letters." 43. This difference in the formation of these consonants may be more distinctly perceived in the s and z than in any other of the letters; the former is sounded by the simple issue of the breath between the teeth, without any vibration of it in the throat, and may be called a hissing sound; while the latter cannot be formed without generating a sound in the throat, which may be called a vocal sound. The upper rank of letters, therefore, may be called breathing consonants; and the lower, vocal ones. 44. These observations premised, we may proceed to describe the organic formation of each letter. 45. P and B are formed by closing the lips till the breath is collected, and then letting it issue by forming the vowel e. 46. Fand Vare formed by pressing the upper teeth upon the under lip, and sounding the vowel e before the former and after the latter of these letters. 47. T and D are formed by pressing the tip of the tongue to the gums of the upper teeth, and then separating them, by pronouncing the vowel e. 48. S and Z are formed by placing the tongue in the same position as in 7 and D, but not so close to the gums, as to stop the breath: a space is left between the tongue and the palate for the breath to issue, which forms the hissing and buzzing sound of these letters. 49. SH heard in mission, and zh in erasion, are formed in the same seat of sound as s and z; but in the former, the tongue is drawn a little inwards, and at a screwhat greater distance from the palate, which occasions a fuller effusion of breath from the hollow of the mouth, than in the latter, which are formed nearer to the teeth. 50. TH in think, and the same letters in that, are formed by protruding the tongue between the fore teeth, pressing it against the upper teeth, and at the same time endeavouring to sound the s or z; the former letter to sound th in think, and the latter to sound th in that. 51. K and G hard are formed by pressing the middle of the tengue to the roof of the mouth near the throat, and separating them a little smartly to form the first, and more gently to form the last of these letters. . 52. CH in chair, and Jin jail, are formed by pressing t to sh, and d to zh. 53. Mis formed by closing the lips, as in Pand B, and letting the voice issue by the nose. 54. Nis formed by resting the tongue in the same position as in Tor D, and breathing through the nose, with the mouth open. 55. L is formed by nearly the same position of the organs as t and d, but more with the tip of the tongue, which is brought a little forwarder to the teeth, while the breath issues from the mouth. 56. R is formed by placing the tongue nearly in the position of t, but at such a distance from the palate as suffers it to jar against it, when the breath is propelled from the throat to the mouth. 57. NG in ring, sing, &c. is formed in the same seat of sound as hard g; but while the middle of the tongue presses the roof of the mouth, as in G, the voice passes principally through the nose, as in N. 53. Y consonant is formed by placing the organs in the position of e, and squeezing the tongue against the roof of the mouth, which produces ee, which is equivalent to initial y. (36.) 50. I consonant is formed by placing the organs in the position of on, described under z, and |