ART. II.-ON THE HOLY PLAYS OR MYSTERIES OF THE MIDDLE AGES, with an account of a Sacred Drama which was performed in the year 1840 at Oberammergau in Upper Bavaria.

TRAGEDY is defined by Aristotle to be the representation of solemn and important transactions, conveyed in measured language with rhythm and harmony, by action, and not simple narration, exciting pity or dismay, so as to purify and temper the passions of the human breast.

Such in the days of this great critic was the office of the buskined Muse-and truly marvellous were its effects. Nothing could exceed the intense interest excited by the representation of the Eumenides or the Agamemnon of Eschylus, or of the Edipus at Colonos of Sophocles; and it is said by Lucian *, that when the Andromeda of Euripides was performed at Abdera under the reign of Lysimachus, the audience went from the Theatre horror-struck, fevered, and, as it were, possessed; and that this mania became a sort of Epidemic throughout the city. The laws of Greek tragedy-so essentially differing from those of the modern Drama-were in strict conformity with Aristotle's definition above-quoted. The Chorus, which in our view constitutes its most distinguishing characteristic, so far from being an adjunct, had been in fact its germ and origin, and ever after continued to give it pith and substance. Through the Chorus, not only was expression stamped upon the forms which imagination bodied forth-but unknown or obscure facts were developed, and utterance was given to the most sublime precepts of morals and philosophy. Unnatural as its introduction would now appear, it was unquestionably suited to the genius and circumstances of the people among whom it originated-and in the course of this memoir, an example will be given of its advantageous introduction even in our own days. After the death of the great Athenian Triumvirate, the dramatic performances of Greece continued to be conducted upon the same model; and the Romans in succeeding ages-though not inheriting the genius, adopted the technical rules and arrangements of their great Masters. The only Latin tragedies that have descended entire to our times are those which go under the name of Seneca-and in them is exhibited the same general plan which had been adopted by the writers of Athenian tragedy. After the division and decline of

*Lucian-Quomodo historia conscribenda sit.

the Roman Empire, the Greek drama continued to flourish in Byzantium, the Eastern Capital; but in the fourth century Gregory Nazianzen, a father of the Christian Church, was mainly instrumental in banishing Pagan Plays, and introducing upon the stage Sacred Dramas constructed upon the same model, but having their subjects selected from the Old and New Testament. One tragedy," the passion of Christ," (Xploтoç Taσxwv) remains out of many composed by him; and its Prologue sets forth that the Virgin Mary was therein for the first time introduced upon the stage, and that the piece was got up in imitation of Euripides. At this period indeed, it became customary to compose Christian imitations or parodies of the Greek classics in various departments of the Belles Lettres, to be read and taught in schools-and this fashion began to prevail in Italy. But the genius of Italy, obscured by barbarian ignorance and oppression, emitted for many ages no cheering gleam of light. The Church became the only depository of learning. There, on solemn festivals, were performed a species of dramatic exhibition called "Mysteries," or "Miracles," representing the most important passages in the Old and New Testament, and in the lives of the saints. At first they appear to have been little more than Dumb Shows, enlivened with a few short Speeches, and addressed by way of explanation to the unlearned auditors; but afterwards they were enlarged into the form of Dialogue, when some division took place into Acts and Scenes. In the hands of the Priests, however, the buskined Muse appeared to little advantage, being tricked out at one time for purposes of deception, at another of extortion. Scriptural representations, which should have inspired dutiful reverence to God, and gratitude to the Redeemer, were accompanied in many instances with frivolity and gross obscenities, and thus became productive only of contempt and ridicule. In proof of this, the following extract shall be taken from an ancient Novel, often quoted by our old dramatic Poets, entitled "A Merye Jest of a man that was called Howleglas," being a translation from the Dutch language, in which he is named Ulenspiegle. Howleglas, whose waggish tricks are the subject of this book, after many adventures, comes to live with a priest, who makes him his Parish clerk. This priest is described as keeping a leman or concubine, who had but one eye, to whom Howleglas owed a grudge for revealing his rogueries to his Master. The story thus proceeds :

And than in the meane season, while Howleglas was parysh clarke, at

* Imprinted by Wm. Copland; without date, in 4to. bl. let. among Mr. Garrick's Old Plays, vol. x.

Easter they should play the Resurrection of our Lorde;' and for because than the men wer not learned, nor could not read, the priest took his leman, and put her in the grave for an Aungell; and this seeing Howleglas, toke to hym three of the symplest persons that were in the town, that played the iij Maries and the person (i. e. Parson or Rector) played Christe, with a baner in his hand. Than said Howleglas to the symple persons, Whan the Aungel asketh you, whome you seke, you may saye, the parson's leman withe one iye.' Than it fortuned that the tyme was come that they must playe, and the Aungel asked them whom they sought, and than say'd they, We seke the priest's leman with one iye.' And than the priest might heare that he was mocked. And whan the prieste's leman heard that, she arose out of the grave and would have smyten with her fist Howleglas upon the Cheke, but she missed him, and smote one of the symple persons that played one of the thre Maries ; and he gave her another, and than toke she him by the heare (hair); and that seeing his wyfe, came running hastely to smite the prieste's leman, and than the priest seeing this, caste down his baner, and went to helf his woman, so that one gave the other sore strokes, and made great noise in the Churche. And then Howleglas seying them lyinge together by the eares in the bodi of the Churche went his way out of the village and came no more there."

Considered as literary performances, these plays were beneath Criticism, being very rarely moulded upon the Greek model, but upon the capricious and false taste of every ignorant Monk who might choose to try his hand at this sort of Composition. Besides these, which (as already mentioned) were denominated "Mysteries," other dramatic pieces were brought forward by the same parties, styled "Moralities," or moral plays, wherein allegorical personages were introduced, such as Death, Sin, Good-deeds, Discretion, &c., requiring more skill and invention. Several instances are on record of the performance of both sorts in our own country during the 12th, 13th, 14th and 15th centuries; and of these perhaps the most remarkable are the "Chester Mysteries," composed by Randle Higgenett or Higden (not the compiler of the Polychronicon), a monk of the Abbey there, who lived in the 13th century. They were first enacted at that City in the year 1328, according to one account, and according to another in 1339, at the expense of the different Guilds or trading Companies. The "fall of Lucifer" was got up by the Tanners-"the Creation" by the Drapers-" the Deluge" by the Dyers, &c.; and from the New Testament, "Christ's passion" by the Bowyers, Fletchers and Ironmongers-the "Descent into Hell" by the Cooks and Innkeepers-the "Resurrection" by the Skinners-and

• Harleian MSS. in the British Museum, Nos. 1948, 2013, 2057, 2124; and Ormerod's Cheshire, vol. i. p. 298.

the "Ascension " by the Taylors. They took place during Whitsun-week, and were continued until the year 1574, Clement, one of the Popes, having granted a pardon of 1,000 days to all persons resorting peaceably to them, to which 40 days were added by the Bishop of the diocese. Sentence of damnation was likewise pronounced against all who interrupted these performances. It is true that our illustrious countryman Roscoe asserts that these Interludes, which have been preserved among the Harleian manuscripts, have been antedated by nearly two centuries. In support however of this assertion no authority is adduced by him, and the evidence more recently brought forward by Mr. Ormerodt, in establishing the date above mentioned, proves that the English were not in this respect behind Italy or any other country of Europe.

It has been already mentioned that these performances were replete with improprieties, to which was added the frequent use of ridiculous and overstrained types drawn from the Old Testament, and exhibited by action and scenery, in order to illustrate to an unlearned audience the life and actions of our Saviour and his disciples. Most Christian Sects have in all ages laid great stress upon the doctrine of Scripture types, and have not limited themselves to such persons or things recorded in the Old Testament as were expressly declared by Christ or his Apostles to have been designed as prefigurations of persons or things relating to the New Testament. Many writers have thus given the most unbounded license to the exuberance of their fancy, and strangely twisted the meaning of passages in the Old Testament, to adapt them to their own peculiar views or Dogmas. Thus Cardinal Bellarmine, the great Controversial antagonist of the Protestants, asserts that the Mass is typified in Melchizidec bringing forth bread and wine-he being a priest of the most high God. The Cardinal likewise declares, that the secession of the Protestants, under Luther, was typified by the secession of the ten tribes of Israel under Jeroboam; while the Lutherans with equal reason asserted that Jeroboam was a type of the Pope, and that the secession of Israel from Judah foreshadowed not the secession of the Protestants under Luther-but that of the Church of Rome from Primitive Christianity.

Though not possessed of the learning and acuteness of these Controversialists, the parties who enacted the Holy Plays contrived to interweave the Scriptures of the Old and New Testament in such a manner as to amuse if not to edify their audience.

* Life of Lorenzo de' Medici, vol. i. p. 299. 4to.

+ History of Cheshire, supra.

Notwithstanding they appear to have considered the whole of the Old Testament as a prefiguration of the Christian dispensation, they were not contented without occasionally enlisting additional recruits from the Apocryphal writers and even from profane authors-all of whom might easily pass muster during so unenlightened a period. A very good illustration of this is presented in the "Speculum humanæ salvationis," the most remarkable among that class of Works denominated Books of Images or Block books, which preceded the invention of printing, and supposed to have been executed about the year 1440. This book is composed upon the plan of presenting, in consecutive portions of each chapter-first the Antitype, being some event in the history of Christ, and then three types from the Old Testament, &c.

a wood engraving of each being given, followed by an explanation in Leonine or rhyming Latin verses, cut likewise in the wood. Two examples taken promiscuously shall be given. The Nativity of our Saviour is shadowed forth by the three following types: 1st, the dream of Pharoah's butler; 2nd, the rod of Aaron, which budded; 3rd, the Sybil pointing out to Augustus Cæsar in Rome, at the moment of our Saviour's birth, a bright Circle in the Sky, wherein was seated the blessed Virgin with the Infant in her lap; this last being given on the authority of Peter the Lombard. The other example presents us with Christ suspended on the Cross, typified, 1st, by Nebuchadnezar's Dream; 2nd, by King Codrus devoting himself to death for the deliverances of his countrymen the Athenians; and 3rd, by Eleazar meeting with his own death by reason of the Elephant, which he had stabbed, falling upon him. In this case the second type is of course borrowed from the Greek historians, and the last from the Apocryphal book of Maccabees.

On the revival of letters at the beginning of the 16th century, the performance of Holy Plays began to be superseded in Italy by Dramatic productions formed upon the old Grecian model, which called into action not merely the patronage, but even the pen of Lorenzo the magnificent.* These were followed by more elaborate compositions, the Virginia of Accolti, the Sophonisba of Trissino,† the Rosmunda of Rucellai, the Torismondo of Tasso, and the sacrificed Abraham of Beza; and our own Island was able to boast of still more classical productions, the Jeptha and John Baptist of Buchanan in Latin, and the Sampson Agonistes of Milton in English. But the genius and taste of the ultramontane nations became subjected to new impulses. The play wri

* Roscoe's Lorenzo de' Medici, vol. i. p. 300, 4th edit.

In the Sophonisba of Trissino was introduced for the first time the blank verse or Versi sciolti of the Italian language.