from his wife, whom he had married in his boyhood—a wife chosen for him, not a partner of his own choice. Many reasons have been assigned for this step; but the true one appears to be, that she was a woman of mean intellect, a slave of superstition and bigotry, the mere creature of the priests, and that, consequently, she opposed herself to all his plans of reformation; for the priests, knowing that their power would melt away before the torch of knowledge, lost no opportunity of vilifying the czar, and thwarting his schemes if possible. Peter certainly committed an error of judgment in leaving his son Alexis under her care, as the result proved; on the other hand, if this was done out of kindness and consideration to the mother, it reveals a more feeling heart than historians generally allow him to have possessed.

A desirable seaport acquired, and an unsuitable wife got rid of, Peter's next step was to send a number of young Russians to finish their education in Italy, Germany, and Holland. Hitherto, Russia had been without an official representative in any of the states of Europe; but the czar fitted out a splendid embassy to the Statesgeneral of Holland, of which Lefort and Menchikoff were the principal plenipotentiaries, Peter himself accompanying them, though simply as an attaché to the mission. The ease and security with which he left his vast empire to the government of deputies, prove how firmly established was his power. Passing through Riga, on his way to Holland, he sought permission to visit the fortifications; but was refused by the Swedish governor-an indignity which Peter resolved to punish by and by. Proceeding through Prussia, he was received by the king with great respect, and with all the pomp and circumstances of royalty. Here Peter separated himself from the embassy, and proceeded to Holland, travelling privately, and as fast as possible. He arrived at Amsterdam fifteen days before his ambassadors, and engaged a small apartment in the dockyard belonging to the Admiralty. He soon afterwards adopted the habit of a Dutch skipper, and in that dress proceeded to Saardam, where he enrolled himself as a journeyman carpenter, under the name of Peter Michaeloff, in the employment of a ship-builder named Calf! Here he lived in a little shingle-hut for seven weeks, made his own bed, and prepared his own food, corresponded with his ministers at home, and laboured at the same time in ship-building.

Such was the manner in which Peter the Great proposed to acquire the art of ship-building; as willing to work as a carpenter for this purpose, as he had been for another to do a drummer's duty in his model regiment. Truly does one of his earliest biographers remark, 'that many sovereigns have laid down their authority from weariness of the cares and troubles of empire, but he alone quitted his dominions in order to study the art of governing them.' What a picture the apprentice-emperor presents; and what a meeting must that have been which accidentally took place between him and

the Duke of Marlborough at Saardam! For the English noble was well aware that, in the workman Peter Michaeloff, he beheld the undisputed proprietor of a quarter of the globe, the autocrat who had the power of life and death over all its inhabitants; in short, the Czar of Muscovy. Peter was at this time (1697) twenty-five years of age, and is described as a large, powerful man, with bold and regular features, dark-brown hair, that fell in natural curls about his neck, and a dark, keen eye, which glanced from one object to another with singular rapidity. He was dressed on that occasion in a red woollen shirt and duck trousers, and a sailor's hat, and was seated, with an adze in his hand, upon a rough log of timber which lay upon the ground. He was conversing with great earnestness and much gesticulation with some strangers, his countenance displaying, by its strong and varying expression, the interest he took in their discourse. The soldier-duke-it is easy to imagine the contrast of costume and character-approached, and opened a slight conversation by some remarks on the art of ship-building. While they were thus engaged, a stranger in a foreign costume appeared, bearing an enormous letter in his hand; the journeyman started up, and snatching the packet, tore off the seals, and eagerly perused it, while the stately Marlborough walked away unregarded!

Who can tell what this very dispatch contained! Most probably the life or death, freedom or slavery, fame or fortune, of one or many of his subjects hung upon the word of that 'foreign journeyman.' It was while handling the compass and the adze at Saardam that the confirmation was brought him of the double, or rather rival, nomination of Augustus, elector of Saxony, and the Prince of Conti, to the vacant throne of Poland; and Peter, already assuming the right to be a king-maker, promised to assist Augustus with thirty thousand troops. Meanwhile his army was gaining fresh victories near Azov; but Peter had a nobler ambition than the desire of military glory. He continued to improve himself in different arts, passing frequently from Saardam to Amsterdam to hear lectures on anatomy; and he made himself capable of performing several operations in surgery. He also mastered the Dutch language, and made considerable progress in mathematics, civil engineering, and the science of fortification; besides visiting every literary, charitable, or scientific institution, and the paper-mills, saw-mills, and all manufacturing establishments, which he examined carefully, with the intention of introducing similar works into his own empire. 'What is that?' was his constant exclamation at beholding anything new; nor would his inquiring mind rest for a moment till he obtained an explanation. We can fancy the astonishment of the quiet lethargic Hollanders at this energetic prince, who, though choosing to work as a carpenter, took no pains to conceal his rank; flying about the country with an activity of mind and body equally incomprehensible to them, and

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seeking knowledge with more ardour and avidity than other princes had ever sought even pleasure.

Peter spent about nine months in the Netherlands, during which time a sixty-gun ship was completed from his own draught and model, and at much of the carpentry of which he worked with his own hand. This vessel, said to be an admirable specimen of naval architecture, he sent to Archangel—for as yet the czar had not a seaport on the Baltic. He then crossed over to England, where he was received with great attention by William III., who deputed the Marquis of Caermarthen to attend him, and devote himself to his service. Peter's chief object was to examine the dockyards and maritime establishments of England as he had done those of Holland; but though he still preserved his incognito, he no longer worked as a journeyman. Yet, according to an old writer, 'he would. often take up the tools and work with them; and he frequently conversed with the builders, who shewed him their draughts, and the method of laying down, by proportion, any ship or vessel.' At first he lodged in York Buildings, while in London; and the last house next the river, on the east side of Buckingham Street, near the Strand, is said to have been inhabited by him; but afterwards, that he might be near the sea, he occupied a house belonging to the celebrated John Evelyn at Deptford. He was frequently heard to declare that if he were not Czar of Russia, he would like to be Admiral of England.

Under the date of January 30, 1698, we find in Evelyn's Diary as follows: 'The Czar of Muscovy being come to England, and having a mind to see the building of ships, hired my house, Saye's Court, and made it his court and palace, new-furnished by the king.' And just about this time Mr Evelyn's servant writes to his master thus: "There is a house full of people, and right nasty. The czar lies next your library, and dines in the parlour next your study. He dines at ten o'clock, and at six at night; is very seldom at home a whole day; very often in the king's yard, or by water, dressed in several dresses. The king is expected there this day: the best parlour is pretty clean for him to be entertained in. The king pays for all he has.'

Though the czar did not now carry his enthusiasm so far as to work as a carpenter, yet his fondness for sailing and managing boats was as eager here as in Holland. Sir Anthony Deane and the Marquis of Caermarthen were almost daily with him on the Thames, sometimes in a sailing yacht, and at others rowing in boats-an exercise in which both the czar and the marquis are said to have excelled. The Navy Board received directions from the Admiralty to hire two vessels, to be at the command of the czar whenever he should think proper to sail on the Thames, to improve himself in seamanship. In addition to these, the king made him a present of the Royal Transport, with orders to have such alterations and

accommodations made in her as his czarish majesty might desire; and also to change her masts, rigging, sails, &c. in such a way as he might think proper, to improve her sailing qualities. But his great delight was to get into a small decked boat belonging to the dockyard, and taking only Menchikoff, and three or four others of his suite, to work the vessel with them, he being the helmsman. By this practice he said he should be able to teach them how to command ships when they got home. Having finished their day's work, they used to resort to a tavern in Great Tower Street, close to Tower Hill, to smoke their pipes, and to drink beer and brandy. The landlord had the Czar of Muscovy's head painted, and put up for his sign, which continued till the year 1808, when some one took a fancy to the old sign, and offered the then occupier of the house to paint him a new one for it. A copy was accordingly made from the original, which maintained its station, as the sign of the Czar of Muscovy, until the house was rebuilt.

While in England, Peter also directed his attention to engineering; and, what is curious, received a doctorate from the university of Oxford. He took into his service upwards of five hundred persons -officers, engineers, cannoneers, surgeons, &c.; in particular, a body of skilful engineers and artificers, whom he despatched to Russia, for the purpose of carrying out a great project which he had already arranged in his own far-seeing mind. This was to open a communication, by locks and canals, between the rivers Volga and Don and the Caspian Sea. And it may convey an idea of the ignorance and superstition with which Peter had to contend, that this noble scheme raised an outcry among the priests and nobles, who declared it was 'a piece of impiety to turn the streams one way which Providence had directed another.' Ferguson, the celebrated engineer and geometrician, entered into his service, and was the first person who brought arithmetic into use in the exchequer of Russia. Previously, they had made use only of the Tartar method of reckoning, by balls strung upon a wire.

In the end of 1698, Peter returned to Holland on his way home; and on taking leave of King William, he presented him with a ruby of the value of £10,000, drawing it from his waistcoat pocket, 'wrapped up in a bit of brown paper.' It was truly a royal present, though not given after a very royal fashion; but Peter had a great contempt for forms and ceremonies, and William III. was far too sensible a man to stand very greatly upon them. Peter also, in return for the attentions bestowed on him by the Marquis of Caermarthen, conferred on that nobleman the right to license every hogshead of tobacco exported to Russia, and to charge five shillings for each license. This must have brought a large revenue, for an English company had thought it worth while to pay £15,000 for the monopoly of the exportation. While in London, his attention was forcibly attracted to the magnificent building of Greenwich

Hospital, which, until he had visited it, and seen the old pensioners, he had some difficulty in believing to be anything but a royal palace. King William having asked him one day how he liked his hospital for decayed seamen, the czar answered: 'If I were the adviser of your majesty, I would counsel you to remove your court to Greenwich, and convert St James's into a hospital.'

INSURRECTION AT MOSCOW-NARVA.

From Holland, Peter travelled to Vienna, most probably to have an interview with the Emperor of Germany, who was no doubt very glad to obtain an ally against his old enemies, the Turks. He was received with great pomp; but, in the midst of the festivities which marked his arrival, news reached him that an insurrection of the Strelitzes had broken out in Moscow, though it had already been quelled by the energy and decision of General Gordon, whom he had left in authority. This intelligence, however, induced him to give up a visit to Italy, which he had intended; and travelling with his usual speed, he hastened back to his capital. Although the rebels had been crushed, their punishment was reserved for the czar himself, and he resolved that it should be signal. This was the third time that his reign had been imperilled by their insubordination, and he saw no safety but in utterly breaking their power. A commission was appointed to try them; and for weeks the cord, the axe, and the wheel were furnished with numerous victims daily. Peter attended the trials and executions in person, and refused to listen to the intercession even of the Patriarch; on one occasion, it is said, he stood so close to the block that one of the victims, with courageous resignation, said to him: 'Make room, sire; that is my place.' Peter, it should be remembered, lived in an age when the laws of even the most civilised countries were cruelly sanguinary, and in a half-savage country, where human life was still less regarded. He was also by constitution ferocious in his anger, and remorseless in sacrificing whatever stood in the way of his projects. Still, it does not appear that he loved bloodshed for its own sake; his aversion to war, except as a means to his great ends, which seems to have surprised an English clergyman with whom he conversed when he visited Oxford, is a proof to the contrary. And therefore the accounts that make him and his chief officers play the part of executioners, slaying the victims with their own hands like butchers, are, it may be hoped, exaggerations of a transaction which naturally excited great attention at the time. As the czar was convinced that the Princess Sophia had instigated the rising, in the hope of recovering her authority during her brother's absence, he caused a number of gallowses to be erected before the windows of the convent where she lived, and thereon hanged a hundred and thirty of the conspirators, some of them holding in their hands copies of the supplication