hly by one word. Competitions are likewife established in China, but most of them are of a private nature. Twenty or thirty families, who are all of the fame name, and who confequently have only one hall for the names of their ancestors, agree among themselves to fend their children twice a month to this hall in order to compofe. Each head of a family in turn gives the fubject of this literary conteft, and adjudges the prize; but this costs him a dinner, which he muft caufe to be carried to the hall of competition. A fine of about ten-pence is impofed on the parent of each scholar who abfents himself from this exercise. accomplishments as may render them agreeable to the other fex. There is little distinction in China between the ordinary drefs of men and women. Rank and dignity are distinguifhed by certain neceffary ornaments; and the perfon would be feverely chaftifed who fhould prefume to affume them without being properly authorif ed. The drefs in general confifts of a long veft which reaches to the ground. One part of this vest, viz. that on the left fide, folds over the other, and is faftened to the right by four or five fmall gold or filver buttons, placed at a little diftance from one another. The fleeves are wide towards the fhoulder, growing narrower as they approach the wrift, where they terminate in the form of a horfe-fhoe, covering the hands entirely, and leaving nothing but the ends of the fingers to be feen. Round their middle they wear a large girdle of filk, the ends of which hang down to their knees. From this girdle is fufpended a fheath, containing a knife and two of those small fticks which they ufe as forks. Below this robe they wear a pair of drawers, in fummer made of linen, and in winter of fatin lined with fur, fometimes of cotton, and in fome of the northern provinces of fkins. These are some times covered with another pair of white taffety. Their fhirts are always very fhort and wide, of different kinds of cloth, according to the season. Under thefe they wear a filk net to prevent it from adhering to the fkin. In warm weather they have their necks always bare; when it is cold, they wear a collar made of filk, fable, or fox's fkin, joined to their robe, which in winter is trimmed with fheep's fkin, or quilted with filk and cotton. That of people of quality is entirely lined with beautiful fable-fkins brought from Tartary, or with the finest fox's fkin, trimmed with fable; and in the fpring it is lined with ermine. Above their robe they wear also a kind of furtout with wide sleeves, but very fhort, which is lined in the fame manner. The emperor and princes of the blood only have a right to wear yellow; certain mandarins have liberty to wear fatin of a red ground, but only upon days of ceremony; in general they are clothed in black, blue, or violet. The common people are alDd 2 Befides these private competitions, every student is obliged to compete at least twice a year under the infpection of an inferior mandarin of letters, ftiled Hio-kouan. It frequently happens alfo, that the mandarins of letters order thefe ftudents to be brought before them, to examine the progrefs they have made in their studies, to excite a spirit of emulation among them, and make them give fuch application as may qualify them for any employment in the ftate. Even the governors of cities do not think it below their dignity to take this care upon themselves; ordering all thofe ftudents who refide near them to appear before their tribunal once a month: the author of the best compofition is honoured with a prize, and the governor treats all the candidates on the day of competition at his own expence. In every city, town, and village, in China, there are schoolmasters who teach fuch sciences as are known in that country. Parents poffelfed of a certain fortune provide masters for their children, to attend and inftruct them, to form their minds to virtue, and to initiate them in the rules of good breeding and the accustomed ceremonies, as well as to make them acquainted with the laws and hiftory, if their age will admit. These masters have for the most part attained to one or two degrees among the literati, and not unfrequently arrive at the first employments of the state. The education of the Chinese women is confined to giving them a taste for folitude, and accuftoming them to modefty and filence; and, if their parents are rich, they are likewise instructed in such lowed lowed to wear no other colours but blue or black; and their dress is always composed of plain cotton cloth. Formerly the Chinese were at great pains to preserve their hair; but the Tartars, who fubdued them, compelled them to cut off the greater part of it, and to alter the form of their clothes after the Tartar fashion. This revolution in dress was not effected without bloodshed, though the conqueror at the fame time adopted in other refpects the laws, manners, and customs, of the conquered people. Thus the Chinese are painted as if bald, but they are not fo naturally; that small portion of hair which they preferve behind, or on the tops of their heads, is all that is now allowed them. This they wear very long, and plait like a tail. In fummer they wear a kind of cap shaped like an inverted cone, lined with fatin, and covered with ratan or cane very prettily wrought. The top terminates in a point, to which they fix a tuft of red hair, which spreads over it, and covers it to the brims. This hair grows between the legs of a kind of cow, and is capable of taking, any colour, especially a deep red. This ornament is much used, and any perfon who choofès may wear it. The mandarins and literati wear a cap of the fame form as the foregoing, only it is lined with red fatin, and covered on the outfide with white. A large tuft of the finest red filk is fixed over it, which is fuffered to hang down or wave with the wind. People of diftinction generally use the common cap when they mount on horseback, or during bad weather; being better calculated to keep off rain, and shelter thofe who wear it from the rays of the fun. For winter they have another cap bordered with fable, ermine, or fox's fkin, and ornamented with a tuft of filk like the former. In these fur trimmings they are very curious, fometimes expending forty or fifty ounces of filver upon them. The Chinese people of rank never go abroad without boots made of fatin or fome other filk, and fometimes of cotton, but always dyed. They have neither heel nor top, and are inade to fit the foot with the greateft exactnefs. When they travel on horfeback, however, they have others made of the skin . of a cow or horse, very pliable. Their boot-stockings are of filk ftuff, quilted and lined with cotton, reaching above the top of their boot, and ornamented with a border of velvet or cloth. In fummer they wear a cooler kind, and in their houses a fort of flippers made of filk fluff. The common people are contented with black flippers made of cotton cloth. The fan is also a neceffary appendage of the Chinese drefs, and is reckoned equally neceffary with the boots. The drefs of the women confifts of a long robe quite close at top, and long enough to cover even their toes, with fleeves fo long that they would hang down upon the ground, did they not take care to tuck them up; but their hands are feldom feen. The colour of their dreffes is entirely arbitrary, but black and violet are generally chofen by thofe advanced in life. The young ladies, like thofe of Europe, make use of paint to give a bloom to their com plexions; but this, though not the fame with the kind used in Europe, agrees with it in the effect of foon wrinkling the fkin. Their general head-drefs confifts in arranging their hair in feveral curls, among which are intersperfed fmall tufts of gold or filver flowers. According to Du Halde, fome of them ornament their heads with the image of a fabulous bird, concerning which many stories are told. This is made of copper or filver gilt, its wings extended and lying pretty close to the head dress, embracing the upper part of their temples, while the long spreading tail forms a kind of plume on the top of the head. Its body is directly over the head, and the neck and bill hang down, the former being joined to the body by a concealed hinge, in order that it may play freely, and move about on the leaft motica of the head. The whole bird adheres to the head by means of the claws, which are fixed in the hair. Ladies of quality fometimes wear several of thefe birds made up into a fingle ornament, the workmanship of which is very expenfive. Young ladies wear alfo a crown made of pafteboard, the forepart of which rifes in a point above the forehead, and is covered with jewels. The reft of the head is decorated with natural or artificial flowers, among which small diamond pins are interfperfed. The head-drefs of the ordinary clafs of women, especially when they are advanced in years, confifts only of a piece of very fine filk wrapped round their heads. The Chinese women have remarkably PROGRESS small feet, which is accounted fuch a OF LUXURY. The Roman laws to reftrain luxury LUXURY, among the Romassere- were, Lex Orchia, Fannia, Didia, Li ral laws were made to fupprefs, or at least diminish, it. The extravagance of the table began about the time of the battle of Actium, and continued in great excefs till the reign of Galba. Peacocks, cranes of Malta, nightingales, venifon, wild and tame fowl, were confidered as delicacies. A profufion of provifions was the reigning tafte. Whole wild boars were often ferved up, and fometimes they were filled with various finall animals, and birds of different kinds: this difh they called the Trojan horse, in allufion to the wooden horfe filled with foldiers. Fowls and game of all forts were ferved up in whole pyramids, piled up in difhes as broad as moderate tables. Lucullus had a particular name for each apartment; and, in whatever room he ordered his fervants to prepare the entertainment, they knew by the direction the expence to which they were to go. When he fupped in the Apollo, the expence was fixed at fifty thoufand drachmæ, that is one thousand two hundred and fifty pounds. Marc Antony provided eight boars for twelve guests. Vitellius had a large filver platter, faid to have coft a million of fefterces, called Minerva's buckler. In this he blended together the livers of gilt-heads, the brains of pheasants and peacocks, the tongues of phenicopters, and the milts of lampreys. Caligula ferved up to his guefts pearls of great value diffolved in vinegar; the fame was done alfo by Clodius the fon of fop the tragedian. Apicius laid afide ninety millions of feflerces, befides a mighty revenue, for no other purpose but to be facrificed to luxury: finding himself involved in debt, he looked over his accounts, and, though he had the fum of ten millions of fefterces still left, he poifoned himself for fear of being ftarved to death! cinia, Cornelia, and many others: but all these were too little; for, as riches increafed among them, fo did fenfuality. What were the ideas of luxury entertained in England about two centuries ago, may be gathered from the following paffage of Holinfhed; who, in a difcourfe prefixed to his Hiftory, speaking of the increafe of luxury," fays, "Neither do I fpeak this in reproach of any man, God is my judge; but to fhew, that I do rejoice rather to fee how God has bleffed us with his good gifts, and to behold how that in a time wherein all things are grown to the most exceffive prices, we yet do find the means to obtain and atchieve fuch furniture as heretofore was impoffible. There are old men yet dwelling in the village where I remain, which have noted three things to be marvelously altered in England within their found remembrance. One is the multitude of of chimneys lately erected; whereas in their young days there were not above two or three, if fo many, in most uplandish towns of the realm (the religious houses, and manor-places of their lords, always excepted, and peradventure fome great perfonages), but each made his fire against a reredofs [fkreen] in the hall where he dressed his meat and dined.—The second is the great amendment of lodging; for, faid they, our forefathers and we ourfelves have lain full oft upon straw pallets covered only with a fheet, under coverlits made of a dogfwaine or horharriots (to ufe their own terms), and a good log under their head instead of a bolíter. If it were fo that the father or good man of the house had a mattrafs or flock bed and sheets, a fack of chaff to reft his head upon, he thought himself to be as well lodged as the lord of the town. So well were they contented, that that pillows (faid they) were thought meet only for women in childbed; as for fervants, if they had any sheet above them, it was well, for seldom had they any under their bodies to keep them from pricking ftraws, that ran oft thro' the canvas and their hardened hides.The third thing they tell of, is the exchange of treene [wooden] platters into pewter, and wooden fpoons into filver or tin; for fo common were all forts of treene veffels in old times, that a man fhould hardly find four pieces of pewter (of which one was peradventure a falt) in a good farmer's house. Again, in times paft, men were contented to dwell in houfes builded of fallow, willow, &c. fo that the ufe of oak was in a manner dedicated wholly unto churches, religious houfes, princes palaces, navigation, &c. But now willow, &c. are rejected, and nothing but oak any where regarded; and yet fee the change, for, when our houfes were builded of willow, then had we oaken men; but now, that our houfes are come to be made of oak, our men are not only become willow, but a great many altogether of ftraw, which is a fore alteration. In thefe, the courage of the owner was a fufficient defence to keep the house in fafety; but now the affurance of the timber must defend the men from robbing. Now have we many chimneys, and yet our tenderlins complain of Theums, catarrhs, and pofes; then had we none but reredofes, and our heads did never ach. For, as the fmoke in thofe days was fuppofed to be a fufficient hardening for the timber of the house, so it was reputed a far better medicine to keep the good man and his family from the quacks or pofe; wherewith, as then, very few were acquainted. Again, our pewterers in time past employed the ufe of pewter only upon difhes and pots, and a few other trifles for fervice; whereas now they are grown into fuch exquifite cunning, that they can in a manner imitate by infufion any form or fathion of cup, difh, bowl, or goblet, which is made by the goldfmiths craft, though they be ever fo curious and very artificially forged. In fome places beyond the fea, a garnish of good flat English pewter (I fay flat, because dishes and platters in my time began to be made deep, and like basons, and are indeed more convenient both for fauce and keeping the meat warm) is esteemed fo precious as the like number of veffels that are made of filver.”· Particular inftances of luxury in eating, however, might be adduced from an early period, furpaffing even the extravagance of the Romans. Thus, in the 10th year of the reign of Edward IV. 1470, George Nevill, brother to the earl of Warwick, at his initalment into the archiepifcopal fee of York, entertained most of the nobility and principal clergy, when his bill of fare was 300 quarters of wheat, 350 tuns of ale, 104 tuns of wine, a pipe of fpiced wine, so fat oxen, fix wild bulls, 1004 wethers, 300 hogs, 300 calves, 3000 geese, 3000 capons, 300 pigs, 100 peacocks, 200 cranes, 200 kids, 2000 chickens, 4000 pigeons, 4000 rabbits, 204 bitterns, 4000 ducks, 200 pheasants, 500 partridges, 2000 woodcocks, 400 plovers, 100 curlews, 100 quails, 1000 egrets, 200 rees, 400 bucks, does, and roebucks, 1506 hot venifon pafties, 4000 cold ditto, 1000 dishes of jelly parted, 4000 dishes of jelly plain, 4000 cold custards, 2000 hot cuftards, 300 pikes, 300 breams, eight feals, four porpuffes, 400 tarts. At this feast the earl of Warwick was steward, the earl of Bedford treasurer, and lord Haftings comptroller, with many more noble officers; 1000 fervitors, 62 cooks, 515 menial apparitors in the kitchen.-But fuch was the fortune of the man, that after his extreme prodigality he died in the most abject but unpitied poverty, vinctus jącuit in fumma inopia. And as to drefs, luxury in that article feems to have attained a great height long before Holinfhed's time: for, in the reign of Edward III. we find no fewer than feven fumptuary laws paffed in one feflion of parliament to reftrain it. It was enacted, that menfervants of lords, as alfo of tradesmen and artifans, thall be content with one meal of fith or fleth every day; and the other meals, daily, thall be of milk, cheefe, butter, and the like. Neither fhall they ufe any ornaments of gold, filk, or embroidery; nor their wives and daughters any veils above the price of twelve-pence. Artifans and yeomen fhall not wear cloth above forty fhillings the whole piece (the fineft then being about about fix pounds the whole piece), nor the ornaments before named. Nor the women any veils of filk, but only those of thread made in England. Gentlemen under the degree of knights, not having 100l. yearly in land, fhall not wear any cloth above 4 marks the whole piece. Neither fhail they or their females ufe cloth of gold, filver, or embroidery, &c. But efquires, having two hundred pounds per annum or upwards of rent, may wear clothes of five marks the whole piece or cloth; and they and their females may alfo wear ftuff of filk, filver, ribbons, girdles, or furs. Merchants, citizens, burghers, and artificers of tradefimen, as well of London as elfewhere, who have goods and chattels of the clear value of five hundred pounds, and their females, nay wear as is allowed to gentlemen and efquires of one hundred pounds per annum. And merchants, citizens, and burgeffes, worth above one thousand pounds in goods and chattels, may (and their females) wear the fame as gentlemen of two hundred pounds per annum. Knights of two hundred marks yearly may wear cloth of fix marks the cloth, but no higher; but no cloth of gold, nor furred with ermine: but all knights and ladies having above four hundred marks yearly, up to one thoufand pounds per annum, may wear as they please, ermine excepted; and they may wear ornaments of pearl and precious stones for their heads only. Clerks having degrees in cathedrals, colleges, &c. may wear as knights and efquires of the fame income. Plowmen, carters, thepherds, and fuch like, not having forty fhillings value in goods or chattels, fhall wear no fort of cloth but blanket and ruffet-lawn of twelve-pence, and fhall wear girdles and belts; and they hall only eat and drink suitable to their ftations. And whofoever uses other apparel than is prefcribed by the above Jaws fhall forfeit the fame. Concerning the general utility of luxry to a flate, there is much controverfy among the political writers. Baron Montefquieu lays it down, that luxury is neceffary in monarchies, as in France; but ruinous to democracies, as in Holland. With regard therefore to Briin, whose government is compounded of both species, it is held to be a dubious queftion, how far private luxury is a public evil; and, as fuch, cognisable by public laws. And indeed our legiflators have feveral times changed their fentiments as to this point; for formerly there were a number of penal laws exifting to reftrain excefs in apparel, chiefly made in the reigns of Edward III. IV. and Henry VIII. a fpecimen of which we have inferted above. But all of them it appeared expedient to repeal at an after-period. In fact, although luxury will of neceflity increase according to the influx of wealth, it may not be for the general benefit of commerce to impofe, as in the abovecited laws, an abfolute prohibition of it: yet, for the good of the public, it may be neceffary that fuch as go beyond proper bounds in eating, drinking, and wearing what by no means is fuitable to their tation, fhould be taxed accordingly, could it be done without including thofe who have a better title to such indulgence. This is certainly, however, a point which fhould be maturely weighed before executed; and, in mercantile countries at least, fuch reftraints may be found prejudicial moft likely impracticable, especially where true liberty is established. Sir W. Temple obferves, fpeaking of the trade and riches, and at the fame time of the frugality, of the Hollanders, "That fome of our maxims are not so certain as current in politics: as that encouragement of excefs and luxury, if employed in the confumption of native commodities, is of advantage to trade, It may be fo to that which impoverishes, but not to that which enriches, a coun try. It is indeed lefs prejudicial, if it lies in native than in foreign wares; but the humour of luxury and expence cannot stop at certain bounds; what begins in native will end in foreign commodities; and, though the example arise among idle perfons, yet the imitation will run into all degrees, even of those men by whofe induftry the nation fubfifts. And befides, the more of our own we fpend, the lefs fhall we have to send abroad; and fo it will come to pafs, that, while we drive a vast trade, yet, by buying much more than we fell, we fhall come to be poor at laft." |