are not green, but coloured like the petals of mostflowers. We have already stated, however, that amongst the other transformations of parts which occasionally ensue, the transformation of the calyx into theappearance of a corolla is

150

149

Passion-flowers. The term petaloid means resembling a petal; the termination oid being derived from the Greek word eidos (ei-dos), likeness, which word, in composition, changes eid into oid. Directing the eye to the lower part of the sepals, they will be observed to rise from a shallow cup-like body, to which also are attached the petals and other portions of the flower.

152. SCARLET PASSION-FLOWER (PASSIFLORA AMABILIS).

not unfre-
quent. So fre- 148. SCURVY GRASS (COCHLEARIA OFFICINALIS). 149. THE WALL-FLOWER. 150. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF OVARY
quently, in- OF PASSION-FLOWER. 151. OVARY OF PASSION-FLOWER.
deed, does this

occur, that mere green colour is not to be regarded as more
than a collateral circumstance. The external floral whorl is
always considered by botanists as a calyx, whatever its colour
may be. That colour is often very brilliant, as in the fuchsia,
for example, where the gay-looking part of the flower is not
corolla or aggregation of petals, but calyx, or aggregation of
sepals. This assumption by the parts of the calyx of the
appearances usually presented by the corolla gives rise to what
botanists term a petaloid perianth. The student will find this
term comprehended in the list of characteristics peculiar to

As regards the petals themselves, they are COloured similarly to the colour of the inside of the sepals, and are of the same colour on both sides, by which circumstance they may be distinguished from the sepals, as also by the circumstance of their not having a little horn, which may be found on examination springing from each of the sepals.

We next arrive at the filamentary rays which the imaginative Spaniards compared to the crown of thorns! What are those rays? Theyare petals so modified in shape that they almost present the appearance of stamens. This modification, and yet more frequently its converse, stamens modified into petals, is not at all unfrequent in many flowers, as the result of cultivation. In the Passionflower tribe, however, it exists as the usual condition of the flower. Let

us now proceed to examine the reproductive, or fruit and seedproducing portions of the flower, which are very peculiar. We have already mentioned a cup-like body in connection with the structure of a Passion-flower. It corresponds with the part lettered c in Fig. 151. In the centre of this cup a column-like body is observed rising aloft in the centre of the flower, to which certain appendages are attached. The nature of these appendages will at once be obvious. Externally, we easily recognise five anthers, and internally we recognise the club-headed pistils; but looking again at the stamens, we search in vain for the filaments

to which they are usually attached These laments do not exist
at least do not separately exist; they are au muted—a se
the French say, and it is a very good word-to the support dé tue
Ovary. This expression, "support of the ovary.

24 new to: bat if the reader looks at his dissected Puma-Émer, or at diagram in Fig. 151, he will recognise the propriety of the expression; for in this tribe the ovary is supported within the flower by means of a little stem. Now this unde man ben called a stipes, the ovary is said to be stist-te This term the reader will remember, occurs in our list of chara teration of this natural order. Let the student now examine a little more in detail the anthers or pollen-forming his of the stamens. These do not point towards the stigmas to in the opposite direction, which is very unusual. Fertallestion of the evile depends, as we need not repeat, upon contact between the pollen-dust and the stigmas; hence it would even that the anthers should always point towards the stigmas. Let cases they do so point towards them, but in the Passion-dower tribe we find an exception to this rule.

Fig. 150 represents the transverse section of the ovary taining the seeds. The fruit, or ripened ovary, in all species of the Passion-flower is egg-shape 1, differing in size averring to the species. The blue Passion-dower provinces a fruit about thi size of a hen's egg; but in other species the fruit is much larger, and contains a delicious pulp.

Passion-flowers, we have seen, are both agreeable and neful from the beauty of their flowers and the flavour of their fruits: many species are medicinal. The pulp surrounding their seeds is in some cases sweet, in others acid; the latter serve as the basis for the preparation of acidulated drinks, not only gnisable, but medicinal. One species, Passiflora Rura, contains a narcotic principle which is sometimes employed as a substitute for opium. Passiflora Quadrangularis is cultivated for the refreshing pulp surrounding its seeds, but its root is very poisonous. In European gardens a large number of species of the Passion-dower are now cultivated, amongst which may be cited as the chief, Passiflora Carulea, or the blue Passion-flower; this being the commonest of all. Of this flower the Passitora Amalias (Fig. 152) is a hybrid or cross race between Passiflora Ata and Passiflora Princeps. Its flowers are scarlet, and exhale a delicate odour. The Murucuja Ocellata is a hot-house species, bearing deep-red flowers. Tactonia Malisi na bears rose-, coloured flowers, and is a climbing plant, requiring a greenhouse for its culture.

HISTORIC SKETCHES.-XV.

HOW ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND BECAME ONE.-PART II.

MANY competitors, as might be supposed, appeared to contest
so great a prize as the crown of Scotland; but the question really
lay between two, John Baliol and Robert Bruce, noblemen of
Norman extraction. The ground on which they founded their
respective claims to the Scottish throne was as follows: William
the Lion died, leaving a brother David, who was created Earl of
Huntingdon on his marriage with King Edward's sister. This
earl had three daughters: the first, Margaret, who married Alan,
Lord of Galloway; the second, Isabella, who married Robert
Bruce, of Annandale; the third, Adama, who married Lord
Hastings. At the time of the death of Alexander III., John
Baliol, the grandson of Margaret, Lady Galloway, claimed the
crown, as nearest descendant of the elder branch; and Robert
Bruce claimed it by what he asserted to be a better title, in
that he was the son of Isabella, the second daughter of David,
and was thus one generation nearer to the original stock. Lord
Hastings claimed, somewhat absurdly, a third of the kingdom,
on the assumption that it must be divided equally between the
tree branches, as private property might have been. The last
claim was never seriously entertained by any one; but though
modern law and custom would have found no difficulty in
deciding in favour of John Baliol, the question between him
and Bruce was, in the then state of law, by no means an easy
one to answer. Both claimants determined to support their
pretensions by force of arms, and were gathering their friends
for that Y
when they were persuaded to refer their dis-
on of the King of England.

his opportunity, and resolved to seize it.
decide the matter by virtue of his being
tland, a dignity the value of which has

already been given. He ransacked the abbeys and other depo- stories of reccris for proof of his right, and though he found Little excitragement by so doing, he none the less boldly advanced his pretensions. In answer to the reference made to him sa referee, he directed the claimants to meet him at Norham, whither he marched with a large force, which was meant to overswe the Scotch Parliament or Council, assembled st the same place.

In May. 1231, the meeting took place accordingly at Norham, the sorts being drawn up in a green plain opposite the castle, in pursuance of the demand they made to be allowed to deli berate in their own country; the English king and his followers being stationed on the English side of the Tweed. To the Setch camp west the English Lord-Chancellor Burnel, and asked in his master's name "whether they would say anything that call or caght to exclude the King of England from the right and encrise of the superiority and direct dominion over the kingdom of Scotland, which belonged to him, and that they would there and then exhibit it if they believed it was expedient for them-protesting that he would favourably hear them, all w what was just, or report what was said to the king and his ecuncil, that what justice required might be done." No dissentient voice having been raised, a notary who was present formally registered the right of the King of England to decide the octroversy as to the Scottish crown; and then the chanelle inired of all the competitors, beginning with Robert Bruce, whether, in demanding his right, he would answer and receive justice from the King of England as superior and direct lord over the kingdom of Scotland." Bruce answered, "that he dil acknowledge the King of England as superior and direct lord of the kingdom of Scotland, and that he would before him. as such, demand, answer, and receive justice." In like words the other claimants answered the chancellor's question, and simel and scaled a solemn instrument to the same effect. Commissioners were then appointed to represent the competitors, and sittings were held forthwith at Berwick, where the whole matter was solemnly gone into.

Judgment was given in favour of John Baliol, who was ready to acknowledge himself the vassal of the English king; but the Scottish lords of parliament, who attended the conference, expressly declined to do this, saying that they would not answer such a question until they had a king, at the same time remin ling the English that the claim once recognised under duress Lad been expressly and solemnly renounced, and that on several occasions their kings had refused to lend the help which as feudatories of English honours they really owed, unless their independence so far as Scotland was concerned was formally and distinctly recognised. Eventually, however, their unwillingness was overcome; they swore fealty to Edward as lord paramount, and acquiesced in the surrender of the principal Scotch fortresses into his hands. English domination was complete, and to show that it was so, King John was six times summoned to the English Parliament as one of the vassal peers.

Even Baliol, indolent and wanting in self-reliance as he was, rebelled at this, and the Scotch people, chafing under the idea of being in bondage, resolved to back him on the first opportunity that he should attempt to throw off the English yoke. This oppor tunity presented itself in 1294, when war broke out between France and England. That war had raged for some time with varying success, when in 1296 Edward called on John to help hi against France, and to surrender certain strongholds as securit for his doing so. John refused both demands, and Edward immediately marched with a strong army to the north, glad of the pretext he had long sought of bringing Scotland under his own personal sway by conquest. At Berwick and Dunbar the Scots were beaten with dreadful slaughter, after which Stirling, Edinburgh, Roxburgh, and all the southern part of the king dom, fell into Edward's hands. Bruce and his son, with many more of the Scotch nobles, were in the English camp, the unhappy country was divided against itself, and it fell with a great fall. Everywhere submission was made to the conqueror, the hare-hearted Baliol resigned his crown to Edward, who returned to the south undisputed lord of the whole of Great Britain. Isaliol was imprisoned and afterwards died in banish ment, and Earl Warenne was appointed viceroy or lieutenant of Scotland.

For eighteen months things went on drearily in Scotland;

the people lacked leaders; those who should have led them were afraid, incapable, or actually on the enemy's side; the iron heel of English dominion pressed heavily on the land, and entered into its soul. But there was a secret determination to make use of the first opportunity for throwing off the oppressor's yoke. Men bided their time, nursing up their wrath against the day of slaughter, waiting as patiently as they might for their natural leaders to come to their aid. At the end of eighteen months the opportunity came. King Edward was absent with his army in Flanders, and Earl Warenne was obliged by ill health to leave Scotland. The strong men were away, and the tyrannical conduct of the under rulers, especially that of Cressingham and Ormesby, served to irritate the Scots into taking advantage of the circumstance.

In the mountains and forests there had lived ever since the English came a number of so-called outlaws-men of independent spirit, trained to rough life, and imbued with the freedom of the air they breathed-men who never would acknowledge the English rule. Chief of them was William Wallace, a man of whom probably his friends have said too much, as his enemies undoubtedly have said more than enough; a rough soldier, in whose breast the unrefined spirit of liberty had a home, and who acted both according to his roughness and according to his love of liberty. This man put himself at the head of the malcontents, and issuing from his cover, raised the standard of revolt against the foreign king. Hundreds and thousands flocked to the rallying post, and in a few days after he had declared himself Wallace was at the head of an army respectable for its numbers, and for the thoroughly good stuff of which it was composed. Availing himself of his intimate knowledge of the country, Wallace effected a series of surprises on the English garrisons, which fell before him like huts before an avalanche. Ormesby, Earl Warenne's deputy, fled from Scone on hearing that an attempt would be made to take him there, and he carried to his chief the news of the rising of the Scots.

With 40,000 men Earl Warenne marched northwards, and meeting Wallace at Cambuskenneth, near to Stirling, thought to crush him by sheer weight; but the Scotch captain, who had meantime been joined by Sir William Douglas and many other noblemen, so skilfully conducted himself that he was able to fall on the English piecemeal, and utterly to defeat them ere their whole strength could be displayed. The hated Cressingham was among the slain, and report has it that his body was flayed, and that the Scots made saddle-girths of his skin. Earl Warenne retreated across the border, and Wallace, flushed with victory, carried the war into England, and ravaged and plundered the whole bishopric of Durham. Edward, on receiving this news, came over from Flanders, and hastily marched to the north with an army computed at 100,000 men. At Falkirk, on the 22nd of July, 1298, he encountered the Scots' army under Wallace, and entirely routed it, with an enormous loss in killed and wounded. So exhausting, however, was the effort, that Edward retreated instead of following up his success, and the Scots employed the interval in trying to get help both from the French king and the pope. The former refused the slightest assistance, but the pope, Boniface VIII., took up the matter by ordering Edward to refer his claims to the papal arbitration, seeing that the pope was lord paramount of all the kingdoms in the world. The English king, however, quickly disposed of this claim by informing the pope that "neither for Zion nor Jerusalem would he depart from his just rights while there was breath in his nostrils ;" and the English Parliament, before whom the pope's bull was laid, resolved with one voice, "that in temporal matters the King of England was independent of Rome, and that they would not permit his sovereignty to be questioned."

The war with Scotland went on for two years with changeable fortune, the Scots on the whole getting the best of it, when in 1302-1303, Edward took the matter in hand himself, and entering Scotland with a powerful army, applied himself vigorously to the campaign. Town after town succumbed to him, the magic of his skill made the strong places yield, and the heart of Scotland became chilled, as stroke after stroke of his heavy sword fell upon her devoted children. The English dominion was re-asserted in almost every part, and when in 1304 William Wallace was betrayed by Sir John Monteith, and subsequently beheaded in London as a traitor, hope itself seemed to be dead within the Scottish breast.

In 1305-6, however, Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick, grandson of the competitor of Baliol, and one of those to whom Edward chiefly looked to secure his Scotch conquests for him, awoke to a sense of his duty, and entered into a plot for the overthrow of the Anglo-Scotch tyranny. Accident suddenly compelled him to declare himself, and when he did so as the would-be liberator of the kingdom and claimant of the crown, he was promptly joined by many of those "wha hao wi' Wallace bled." The principal Scotch nobles espoused his cause, and so strong did Bruce find himself that in March, 1306, he caused himself to be crowned king at Scone, the ancient coronation-place of the Scottish kings.

Overwhelming were the preparations made by Edward to crush the rebellion, as he called it. The Earl of Pembroke and other commanders invaded the country, and defeated Bruce and his friends in many encounters; so that by the winter of 1306 many of the chiefs were taken and executed, and Bruce himself was a wanderer. Bloody was the vengeance taken by Edward; the nearest and dearest of the principal actors in the field were cruelly put to death, and every circumstance of indignity was made to accompany their punishment. Nevertheless, in the spring of 1307, Bruce with a small band of followers appeared in Arran, and, passing into Ayrshire, was soon enabled to show a front. Sir James Douglas joined him, and his success became so marked and signal, that Edward found himself under the necessity of marching in person against him.

How Edward did march, and how he died on his way in sight of the Scottish border, and how before he died he made his son promise to carry his unburied corpse with the army till Scotland should have been subdued, are matters of history. So is it matter of history how, six years afterwards, in 1313-14, that son marched with an enormous army, and how at Bannockburn, on the 25th of June, 1314, Bruce overthrew him, and routed with irretrievable loss, both of men and prestige, the whole English army, inflicting a greater blow than the English arms had suffered since the conquest, and establishing once and for ever the independence of the kingdom of Scotland. Several futile attempts were subsequently made, as on the occasion referred to at the beginning of this article, to assert the English supremacy over Scotland, and the English kings for some time consoled themselves with the barren comfort of refusing to recognise the kings of Scotland as independent; but since the well-won battle of Bannockburn was fought, the question was never put practically to Scotland, as it had been done before, which of the realms should be the greater. same inconveniences which the policy of Edward I. sought to remove continued to present themselves; Scotland remained a source of danger, a thorn in the side, to England; national antipathies, aggravated by constant provocations, and finding vent perennially in border warfare, were fostered between the two countries, till the death of Queen Elizabeth opened the way to a community of interest, and a unity of state policy. Whenever, after Bannockburn, there was fighting between England and Scotland, it was always conducted on the principle of equality in status in the belligerents; the words "lord paramount" and "vassal" were no longer heard; and the Scots, jealous of any, the slightest dictation, whether from Southron or any other, were always ready to "fight for the liberty which was dearer to them than life."

The

It is a common error to suppose that when James VI. of Scotland and I. of England ascended the English throne, the crowns of the two countries resting upon one head, united the two kingdoms. England and Scotland remained separate and distinct in every respect, save as to their king; they had sepa rate parliaments, separate laws, a distinct religion, different social customs. There was not, of course, the same danger to either country as there had been before the power of peace or war centred in one man; but the national antipathies and prejudices became probably stronger for being brought more closely into contact. All through the English civil war the Scots acted as an independent people, and refused to meet the English in a common council, though they were engaged in a common cause. It was not till 1707, when Queen Anne was on the throne, that the union of England and Scotland into one kingdom under the name of Great Britain, was accomplished. Not without much difficulty, much delicate negotiation, much giving and taking, was the union effected; the Scots were jealous of the people who proposed to absorb them: the English were impatient and