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heights are indicated only in the elevations. Sometimes when the subject is a simple one-for instance, a plain wall-its course and thickness will be shown in the plan, and its height marked by indices in brackets at the end, as (10.5 feet), meaning that it is to be built 10 feet inches high. Fig. 9 is the plan and front elevation of a cottage. It will be seen that if the plan be drawn first, perpendicularly dotted lines must be drawn parallel with each other from every angle, and from the terminations and projections of each line, which will determine the extent of the elevation and of its several parts, but not its height. If the elevation be drawn first, the perpendicularly dotted lines are projected downwards to produce the plan. In orthographic projection we usually draw a line to represent the meeting or axis of the two planes of projection, the horizonal and the vertical, which, as in Fig. 10, we have marked xy; therefore it must be remembered that all above that line is understood to be the vertical plane of projection upon which the elevations are drawn, | and all below it the horizontal plane upon which the plans are drawn. The plan of a circle when parallel with the ground is a circle of the same size indicated by the scale. The elevation is a straight line only, equal to the diameter (Fig. 10). If the circle is standing on its edge perpendicularly to the ground, then its plan is a straight line only, and the elevation is a circle (Fig. 11). To illustrate the positions (Fig. 10), let the pupil hold a pennypiece horizontally before, and level with, his eyes; he will see the edge, the elevation; then let him place it upon the ground, and look down upon it; he will see the whole circumference, the plan. Reverse the position of the penny, and do the same for Fig. 11. We trust there will be no difficulty now in understanding the position of the eye with respect to both planes of projection. As we intend to devote the present Lesson to the consideration of this subject, preparatory to more important questions in perspective, we will give our pupils a few simple problems for practice, reserving others of a more complicated nature till they are required in future Lessons.

PROBLEM II. (Fig. 12).—A rod, 4 feet long, is parallel with, and 2 feet from, both planes; draw its plan and elevation. Scale inch to the foot.-First draw a y, the axis of the planes, and draw ab, 4 feet long, parallel with and 2 feet from ay; then from the extremities a and b draw perpendicular lines to c and d; mark c and d 2 feet above xy, and join them; e will be the elevation, and ƒ the plan.

PROBLEM III. (Fig. 13).-When the same rod is at an angle of 40° with the vertical plane and parallel with the horizontal plane.-Draw a line eg at an angle of 40° with xy, make ef equal to 2 feet, and draw fa parallel to xy: a will be the plan of one end of the rod 2 feet from the vertical plane; upon eg and from a make ab, the plan, equal to 4 feet: draw the perpendicular lines a c and bd, and draw cd, the elevation, parallel with and 2 feet above xy.

PROBLEM IV. (Fig. 14).—When a rod is at an angle of 40° with the ground and parallel with the vertical plane.-Draw eg at an angle of 40° with xy, and draw the perpendicular ef 2 feet from zy, also fc parallel with xy; cut off cd, equal to 4 feet, the whole extent of the rod: from c and d draw perpendiculars cutting ay to a and b; join ab, for the plan, parallel with xy.

When the object is at an angle with both planes, the angle of inclination with the horizon is made on the horizontal plane. PROBLEM V. (Fig. 15).—Let the rod have one end on the ground, and let it rise at an inclination of 50°, and let its plan be at an angle of 40° with the vertical plane.-Draw the line e ag at the given angle 40° with the vertical plane; upon this line the plan will be represented. Draw a h at an angle of 50° with a g, and make a m equal to the length of the rod; from m draw mn perpendicular to a g; an will then be the plan of the rod when inclined to the horizon at 50°. Draw ned and ab at right angles with a y, and make cd equal to mn; join bd; the line bd will be the vertical elevation. That this may be more clearly understood, we will draw the eidograph of the problem, Fig. 16, that is, the figure or appearance it would present when placed in conjunction with the two planes of projection (Fig. 8 is also an dograph). In Fig. 16 ao is the given rod, and an is its plan. Now in order to get the inclination of a o, the rod, which is raised from the paper at an inclination of 50°, must be rabatted, that 1, thrown down upon the horizontal plane; the course of the dotted arc o m will show this. We must construct the angle of the inclination of the rod upon the horizontal plane, that is, the

angle it forms with the ground; therefore man will be equal to o an; this was the reason the angle man in Fig. 15 was made 50°. By comparing Figs. 15 and 16, the same letters being used in both, the corresponding lines will be seen, and it will be understood why c d in Fig. 15 is made equal to mn, because, as in Fig. 16, mn is equal to no, the distance of the upper end of the rod from the ground, and no is equal to cd, therefore mn is equal to c d.

PROBLEM VI. (Fig. 17).-The frustrum of a right square pyramid rests with its base on a horizontal plane, the lengths of the edges of the top and base being respectively 13 and 2.4 inches, and the height 2.8 inches; draw its plan and elevation.—If a pyramid be divided into two parts by a plane parallel to its base, the part next the base is called a frustrum of a pyramid, or sometimes a truncated pyramid. Draw the square a b d c, the plan of the base 2.4 inches side (see Lessons in Geometry, Problem XVIII., Vol. I., page 255), and within it the square efhg, the plan of the top 1.3 inch side. In order to place the plan of the top so that the edges shall be equidistant from the edges of the plan of the base, proceed as follows:-Draw the diagonals cb and a d, make cn equal to 1.3 inch, and draw nh parallel to cgfb; draw gh parallel to cd; the rest will be evident, as the angles are in the diagonals, and the sides are parallel to ab and ac respectively. Having drawn the plans, then draw xy, the ground line, parallel to one side of the square; draw am and bl; draw the lines ei and ƒ k, continuing them above x y equal to the height of the frustrum 2.8 inches; join im, kl, and i k; mikl will be the elevation. The pupil will observe that other elevations can be drawn from the same plan, opposite any other side, when required for working purposes-a common practice in drawing extra elevations for building construction; in these cases all that is necessary is to arrange the ground line or axis of the planes opposite the side of which the elevation is required. Fig. 18 is the same subject as Fig. 17: xy is placed parallel to one of the diagonals of the plan, consequently two faces of the frustrum are seen, a' and b', shown in the plan as a and b.

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-ent let them carry. 2. The first person singular, and the first and second persons plural of the imperative, are the same as the first person singular, and the first and second persons plural of the present of the indicative. The pronouns are dropped: Je parle, parle; Je finis, finis. I speak, speak; I finish, finish.

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imperative, aie, ayons, ayez; ètre, to be, sois, soyons, soyez ; 3. Exceptions. Avoir, to have, make in those persons of the savoir, to know, sache, sachons, sachez; and aller, va, and vas

before y not followed by an infinitive.

4. Vouloir has only the second person plural, veuillez, have the goodness to....

tive by most of the French grammarians. These parts, however, 5. A third person singular and plural is given in the imperabelong properly to the subjunctive, as they express rather a strong wish than a command. The English expressions, let him speak, that he may speak, are rendered in French by qu'il parle. English to the right, to the left. 6. A droite, à gauche, correspond in signification to the Allez à droite, à gauche,

Go to the right, to the left.

7. For the place of the pronouns in connection with the imperative, see Sect. XXVI., 1, 4; Sect. XXVII. 1, 2, 3, 4.

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prendre un parti, to take a determination; prendre du café, du tae, etc., to take cuijee, tea, etc.

RÉSUMÉ OF EXAMPLES.

voyez hercher le tapissier.
order votre parapluie.
rruar votre père.

rle de nous blesser. Pana garde du déchirer vos habits. e-vous pas pris le deuil ? Tensa la peine de vous asseoir. Toa du thé ou du café. juni parti avez-vous pris?

Send for the upholsterer.
Go and fetch your u abrella.
Run and see your father.

Let us take care not to hurt ourselves.
Take care not to tear your clothes,
Have you not put on mourning?
Take the trouble to sit down.
Take tea or coffee.

What resolution have you taken ?

VOCABULARY.

Attend-re, 4, to expect,! Gât-er, 1, to spoil.

to wait for.
Chocolat, m., chocolate.
Courrier, m., courier.
Croi-re, 4, ir., to believe.
Déchir-er, 1, to tear.

Gouverneur, m., go

verner.

Lorsque, when.
Port-er, 1, to wear.
Quelquefois, sometimes.

EXERCISE 135.

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1. Allez voir mon frère, il a quelque chose à vous communiquer. 2. Courez leur dire que je les attends. 3. Mon frère a bien pris garde de déchirer ses habits. 4. Votre cousine a-telle pris garde de tacher sa robe? 5. Elle a pris garde de tomber, car en tombant elle l'aurait gâtée. 6. Ces petites filles ont-elles pris le deuil? 7. Elles viennent de le prendre. 8. Pour qui prenez-vous le deuil? 9. Je porte le deuil de ma mère. 10. Prenez-vous du thé ou du café le matin? 11. Nous prenons du thé et du café. 12. Ne prenez-vous pas quelquefois du chocolat ? 13. Nous n'en prenons que lorsque nous sommes malades. 14. Quel parti le gouverneur a-t-il pris? 15. Il a pris le parti de se taire. 16. Prendrez-vous mon parti (my part) ou celui de votre fils? 17. Je prendrai le vôtre, si je crois que vous avez raison. 18. Pourquoi ne prenez-vous pas la peine de lire sa lettre? 19. Parce qu'elle n'en vaut pas la peine. 20. Votre courrier a-t-il pris les devants? 21. I n'a pu prendre les devants. 22. N'avez-vous pas tort de prendre son parti? 23. Je n'ai pas tort de le prendre. 24. Avez-vous pris le thé (your tea)? 25. Nous n'avons pas pris (our) le thé, nous avons pris le café?

EXERCISE 136.

6.

8. Let us take care not to

1. Has your brother taken care not to spoil his hat ? 2. He has taken care not to spoil it, he has only one. 3. Go and speak to your sister, she calls you (appelle). 4. Will you not take a cup (tasse) of tea? 5. I have just taken my tea. What have you said to your little girl? 7. I have told her to take care not to tear her dress. tear that book. 9. My son has just brought it. 10. Has he taken his tea? 12. At what hour do you take tea at your house? 11. He has not yet taken tea, it is too early. 13. We take tea at six o'clock. breakfast (à votre déjeûner)? 15. We take coffee. 16. Is your 14. Do you take tea or coffee for courier gone on before? 17. He has not been able to go on before. 18. What resolution have you taken? 19. I have taken the resolution to study my lesson. 20. Have you taken care not to tear your books? 21. I have taken care not to stain them. 22. What has your brother determined? 23. He has determined to remain silent. 24. Have you taken my part? 25. I have taken my brother's part. 26. Are you right to take his part? 27. I am right to take his part, because he is right. 28. Are you not afraid to take his part? 29. I am not afraid to take his part. 30. Will you take your sister's part or mine? 31. I will take my sister's part. 32. Go and read your book, you do not know your lesson. 33. I know my lesson, and I know also that you are my friend. 34. Let us go to our father, he wants us.

KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN FRENCH.
EXERCISE 42 (Vol. I., page 207).

1. Où votre ami va-t-il ? 2. Il va chez vous on chez votre frère. 3. N'a-t-il pas l'intention d'aller chez votre associé? 4. Il a l'intention d'y aller, mais il n'a pas le temps aujourd'hui. 5. De quoi avez-vous besoin aujourd'hui ? 6. J'ai besoin de mon gilet qui est chez le tailleur. 7. Vos habits sont-ils chez le peintre ? 8. Ils n'y sont pas ils sont chez le tailleur. 9. Où demeurez-vous, mon ami? 10. Je

demeure chez votre belle-sœur. 11. Monsieur votre père est-il à la maison? 12. Non, Monsieur, il n'y est pas. 13. Où votre domestique porte-t-il le bois? 14. Il le porte chez le capitaine russe. 15. Le monsieur qui est avec Monsieur votre père, demeure-t-il chez lui? 16. Non, Monsieur, il demeure chez moi. 17. A-t-il tort de demeurer chez vous? 18. Non, Monsieur, il a raison de demeurer chez moi. 19. D'où le charpentier vient-il? 20. Il vient de chez son associé. 21. A-t-il deux associés? 22. Non, Monsieur, il n'en a qu'un, qui demeure ici. 23. Avez-vous le temps d'aller chez nous ce matiu? 24. Nous avons le temps d'y aller. 25. Nous avons l'intention d'y aller et de parler à Maden oiselle votre sœur. 26. Est-elle chez vous? 27. Elle est chez elle. 28. Avez-vous du pain, du beurre et du fromage à la maison? 29. Nous y avons du pain et du beurre. 30. Nous n'y avons pas de fromage, nous n'aimons pas le fromage. 31. Votre montre est-elle chez l'horloger? 32. Elle y est. 33. Avez-vous deux montres d'or? 34. Je n'ai qu'une montre d'or. 35. Qui a l'intention d'aller chez mon père ce matin? 36. Personne n'a l'intention d'y aller.

EXERCISE 43 (Vol. I., page 215).

est-il ? 14. Il est chez Monsieur votre père ou chez M. votre frère. 15. Avez-vous l'intention d'envoyer chercher le médecin ? 16. J'ai l'intention de l'envoyer chercher. 17. Ai-je raison d'envoyer chercher l'Écossais ? 18. Vous avez tort de l'envoyer chercher. 19. Allez-vous trouver M. votre père l'après-midi? 20. Je vais le trouver le matin. 21. Votre frère va-t-il chez votre oncle tous les lundis. 22. Il y va tous les dimanches. 23. Allez-vous apprendre la musique? 24. Ma nièce va l'apprendre, si elle a le temps. 25. Est-ce que je vais lire ou écrire ? 26. Vous allez lire demain. 27. Va-t-il chez vous tous les jours? 28. Il vient vous trouver tous les mercredis. 29. À quelle heure? 30. À neuf heures moins un quart. 31. Vient-il de bonne heure ou tard? 32. Il vient à neuf heures et quart. 33. Qu'allez-vous chercher ? 31. Nous allons chercher des légumes, de la viande et du sucre. 35. Nous avons besoin de sucre tous les matins.

EXERCISE 47 (Vol. I., page 251).

1. Are you going to write to him? 2. I am going to write to him and communicate to him this news. 3. Are you going to speak to him of me? 4. I am going to speak to him of you and of your companion. 5. Do you send them fine trees? 6. I send them appletrees, pear-trees, and cherry-trees. 7. Do you not send me cherrytrees ? 8. I do not, you have some already. 9. Are you right to speak to them of this affair? 10. I am not wrong to speak to them 11. Come to us to-morrow morning. 12. Come to us this afternoon. 13. Do you go to them every day? 14. I go to them every evening. 15. Do you give them good advice? 16. I give them good advice and good examples. 17. Do you speak to us about your sisters ? 18. I speak to you of them. 19. Do you not speak to us about our brothers? 20. I speak to you of them. 21. Do you not love them? 22. We love and respect them. 23. Do you think of this book û ùo you not? 24. We think of it, and we speak of it. 25. We do not think of it.

1. Where am I going? 2. You are going to the hatter's. 3. Am I going to the bank? 4. You are going to the bank and to the concert. 5. Do I cut your wood? 6. You cut neither my wood nor my coat. 7. Do I wear a green hat? 8. You do not wear a green hat, you wear a black one. of this affair. 9. Is your scholar going anywhere? 10. He is going to church, to school, and to market. 11. Is he not going to the hairdresser's ? 12. He is going nowhere. 13. Do you not wear red leather boots? 14. I wear black leather ones. 15. Do you not go to the banker's? 16. I do not go to his house, he is absent since yesterday. 17. Is he coming to the bank this morning? 18. He intends to come if he has time. 19. Has he a wish to go to the concert? 20. He has a great wish to go, but he has no ticket. 21. Do you live in this village? 22 Yes, Sir, I do. 23. Do you send this note to the postoffice? 24. I send it to its address.

EXERCISE 44 (Vol. I., page 215).

ne sont pas encore écrites.

EXERCISE 48 (Vol. I., page 251).

1. Quand allez-vous écrire à M. votre frère ? 2. Je vais lui écrire demain matin. 3. Avez-vous l'intention de lui écrire tous les lundis?

pas ici.

1. Est-ce que je porte mon grand chapeau noir? 2. Vous portez un bean chapeau vert. 3. Le banquier va-t-il chez le perruquier ce 4. J'ai l'intention de lui écrire tous les mardis. 5. Avez-vous envie matin? 4. Il y va ce matin. 5. A-t-il l'intention d'aller à la banque de lui parler aujourd'hui ? 6. J'ai envie de lui parler, mais il n'est ee matin? 6. Il n'a pas l'intention d'y aller, il n'a pas le temps. 7. 7. Où est-il ? 8. Il est chez lui. 9. Leur parlez-vous ? 10. Envoyez-vous vos lettres à la poste? 8. Je ne les y envoie pas, elles Oui, Monsieur, je leur parle de cette affaire. 11. Vous donnent-ils de bons avis? 9. Est-ce que je vous envoie un billet? 12. Ils me donnent de bons avis et de bons exemples. 10. Vous m'envoyez un billet, mais je n'ai pas envie d'aller au concert. 13. Allez-vous trouver Mademoiselle votre sœur tous les jours ? 14. 11. Monsieur votre frère va-t-il à l'école demain? 12. Il y va auJe vais la trouver tous les matins à neuf heures moins un quart. 15. jourd'hui et il reste demain à la maison. 13. Est-ce que j'y vais? 14. Aime-t-elle à vous voir? 16. Elle aime à me voir, et elle me reçoit Vous n'allez nulle part. 15. Où allez-vous? 16. Je vais chez M. bien. 17. Pensez-vous à cette affaire ? 18. J'y pense toute la journée. votre frère; est-il à la maison? 17. Il n'est pas à la maison, il est 19. En parlez-vous avec M. votre frère ? 20. Nous en parlons souvent. aleent depuis hier. 18. Monsieur votre frère demeure-t-il dans ce 21. Envoyez-vous votre compagnon chez moi? 22. Je l'envoie tous village 19. Il n'y demeure pas, il demeure chez mon neveu. 20. les jours. 23. Êtes-vous chez vous tous les jours? 24. J'y suis tous Avez-vous tort d'aller à l'école? 21. Non, Monsieur, j'ai raison d'aller les matins à dix heures. 25. Aimez-vous à aller à l'église? 26. J'aime à à l'église et à l'école. 22. Avez-vous envie de venir chez moi? y aller tous les dimanches avec un compagnon. 27. Parlez-vous de vos J'aime à aller chez vous et chez M. votre frère. maisons ? 24. Quand venez28. J'en parle. 29. M. votre frère parle-t-il de ses amis ? vous chez nous ? 25. Demain, si j'ai le temps. 26. Le banquier 30. Oui, Monsieur, il parle d'eux. 31. Pense-t-il à eux ? 32. Oui, aime-t-il à venir ici? 27. Il aime à venir chez vous. 28. Le perruMonsieur, il pense à eux. 33. Pense-t-il à cette nouvelle ? quier vient-il ? 29. Il ne vient pas encore. 30. Qu'envoyez-vous à Monsieur, il y pense. 35. Je les aime et je les honore. l'écolier? 31. Je lui envoie des livres, du papier et des habits. Où est-il? 33. Il est à l'école. 34. L'école est-elle dans le village? 5. Elle y est.

EXERCISE 45 (Vol. I., page 236).

23.

32.

1. What are you going to do? 2. I am going to learn my lessons. 3. Are you not going to write to your acquaintances? 4. I am going to write to nobody. 5. Who has just spoken to you? 6. The Irishman has just spoken to us. 7. When is the Scotch lady going to teach you music? 8. She is going to teach me next year. 9. Is she going to commence on Tuesday or on Wednesday? 10. She is going to commence neither on Tuesday nor on Wednesday; she intends to commence on Thursday, if she has time. 11. Does your companion go to church every Sunday? 12. She goes every Sunday and every Wednesday. 13. To whom do you go? 14. I do not go to a»y one. 15. Do you not intend to come to me to-morrow? 16. I intend to go to your dyer. 17. Do you send for the physician? 18. When I am ill I send for him. 19. Does he remain with you the whole day? 30. He remains with me only a few minutes. 21. Do you go to school in the morning? 22. I go in the morning and in the afternoon. Do you go every day? 24. I go every day, except Monday and Sunday. 25. Saturday I remain at home, and Sunday I go to church.

EXERCISE 46 (Vol. I., page 236).

23.

7.

1. L'Irlandais que va-t-il faire? 2. Il va enseigner la musique. 3. Vient-il de commencer son travail? 4. Il vient de le commencer. 5. Qui vient de vous écrire? 6. Le teinturier vient de m'écrire. Votre petit garçon va-t-il à l'église tous les jours? 8. Non, Monsieur, il va à l'église le dimanche, et il va à l'école tous les jours. 9. AllezVous chercher le médecin? 10. Je l'envoie chercher parceque ma seur est malade. 11. Allez-vous trouver mon médecin ou le votre ? 12. Je vais trouver le mien, le vôtre n'est pas à la maison. 13. Où

us some fish?

EXERCISE 49 (Vol. I., page 252).

34. Oui,

1. Will you give this book to my brother? 2. I can lend it to him, but I cannot give it to him. 3. Will you send them to us? 4. The milliner can send them to you. 5. Do you show them to her? 6. I see them and show them to her. 7. Are you afraid to lend them to us? 8. I am not afraid to lend them to you. 9. Can you not send 10. I cannot send you any, I have but little. 11. Will you speak to them of it ? 12. I will speak to them of it, if I do not forget it. 13. Do you often come to see them? 14. I come to see them every morning and every evening. 15. Do you not speak to them of your journey to Poland? 16. I speak to them of it, but they will not believe me. 17. Do I see my acquaintances on Mondays? 18. You see them every day of the week. 19. Do they send you more money than our merchant's clerk ? 20. They send me more than he. 21. Do you send any to the bookseller? 22. I send him some when I owe him. 23. Are you not wrong to send him some ? 24. I cannot be wrong to pay my debts.

LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY.-XXIII.

EUROPE (continued).

THE maps that accompany our present lesson in Geography present accurate delineations of the principal features of France and the great Scandinavian and Iberian peninsulas. We shall supplement these in our next with a map of the countries of Central and Southern Europe on nearly the same scale as the map of France in this lesson.

We now proceed with an enumeration of the islands which belong to Europe. Of these, by far the most important ch in political and commercial importance, are the

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Under this head are included Great Britain, anciently called Albion or Britannia, and divided into the three countries of England, Wales, and Scotland; and Ireland, anciently called Hibernia, with various islands of much smaller dimensions lying around or near the coast. The principal of these are the Isle of Man, in the Irish Sea, situated at nearly an equal distance from England, Scotland, and Ireland; the Isle of Anglesea, which is separated from the mainland of Wales by the Menai Straits; the Scilly Isles, anciently called Cassiterides, or the Islands of Tin, adjacent to Cornwall, the real tin region; the Isle of Wight, south of, and forming part of, Hampshire; the Hebrides, or Western Islands, lying west of Scotland; the Orkney and Shetland Islands, north of Scotland; and the Channel Islands, Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, and Sark, which lie to the northwest of France. Next to the British Islands, the most important in the north of Europe are those which belong to and form part of

the kingdom of Denmark, and lie in the channel or passage to the Baltic, called the Cattegat viz., Zealand, which contains Copenhagen, the capital of that kingdom, with Fünen, Laaland, Falster, Moen, Langeland, Bornholm, and various others. In other parts of the Baltic are the islands of Rugen, Oland, Gottland, Aland, Oesel, and Dago. The islands called the Azores, or Western Is

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Minorca, Ivica, and Formentera, E. of Spain; Sicily, S.W. of Naples, and separated from it by the Strait of Messina; Malta, S. of Sicily, and belonging to Great Britain; the Ionian Islands-viz., Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, Santa Maura, Theaki or Ithaca, Cerigo, and Paxo, situated W. of Greece, and S.W. of Turkey, in the Ionian Sea, and now belonging to Greece; Candia or Crete, S.E. of Greece; many of the islands of the Archipelago-namely, the Negropont (anciently Euboea), Andros, Syra, Naxia, Paros, Antiparos, Hydra, Spezzia, Egina, etc., lying E. and S.E. of Greece; and Lemnos or Stalimene, Imbros, Samothraki, and Thaso, lying S. of Turkey, and belonging to that power. The chief islands in the Mediterranean reckoned as belonging to Asia are Lesbos or Mitylene, Scio or Chios, Samos, Patmos, Rhodes, and many others, lying to the E. of

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lands, which are generally sidered to belong to Europe, and of which Terceira and St. Michael are the principal, are situated about 800 miles W. of Portugal, to which they belong. The island of Iceland, which belongs to Denmark, and is celebrated for its hot springs and its volcanoes, is situated on the edge of the arctic circle, and having its northern point within the Arctic Ocean; the Faroe Isles, which belong to the same kingdom, and are situated N.W. of the Shetland Isles. Ferro, one the Canary Isles, once formed the site of the first meridian, to which all nations referred the longitude, and it is to be regretted that this did not retain its position as the universal meridian for the world at large, and for the simplification of the mode of reckoning the longitude in different countries. The islands which lie in the most northern regions of Europe are the Lofoden Isles, W. of Norway; Spitzbergen, and Nova Zembla, in the Arctic Ocean.

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The islands of the greatest importance in the south of Europe, and which lie in the Mediterranean Sea, are the following:-Corsica, which belongs to France, lying in the Toran Sea; Sardinia, S. of Corsica, and separated from it Strait of Bonifacio; the Balearia Isles-viz., Majorca,

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ern point of Ex-
rope; but this,
according to
some authors, is
Nordkyn, in
Finmark, in lat.
71° 6' N.; the

north point of
Nova Zembla is

in lat. 77° 4' N., and long. 77° 5' E.; the Naze (German, the nose or beak), the most northern point of Nor-way, on the Skager-Rack; the Skaw, or most northern point of Jutland, in

Denmark; Cape
La Hogue, in
France; Capes

Ortegal and Finisterre, in Spain, of which the latter, as the name indicates (Latin, finis, the end; terræ, of the earth), was deemed by the ancients the end or uttermost extremity of the world; Cape Roca, near Lisbon, and Cape St. Vincent, in Portugal; Cape Trafalgar and Tarifa Point, lat. 36° 1' N., long5° 36' W.; Cape Spartivento and Cape di Leuca, in Italy, and Cape Matapan, in Greece (the Morea), the last-named cape being in lat. 36° 22' N., and long. 22° 28′ E.; Cape Passaro, in Sicily; and others of less importance. In the British Islands, Dunnet Head, and not Cape Wrath, is the most northerly point of Great Britain; also Lizard Point, and not Land's End, is the most southerly point. The most northerly point of Ireland is Mullin or Malin Head, and the most southerly point Mizen Head, and not Cape Clear, which is on an island called Clare Island.

The northern highlands of Europe are those which contain the Scandinavian system chain of mountains, extending from the Naze to the North Cape, and consisting of the Langefield,

which flows from the Carpathian Mountains, and, after a course of 500 miles, falls into the same sea at Akerman; the Danube, which has its source in the Black Forest (Schwarzwald), flows through Bavaria, Austria, and Turkey, and, after a course of nearly 1,800 miles, falls into the Black Sea at Ismail; the Rhine and the Rhone, which both spring from the Swiss Alps, take opposite courses, the former running through the Lake of Constance, after a northern course of about 600 miles through Germany, France, and the Netherlands, falls into the German Ocean, after losing itself in the Waal, the Maese or Meuse, the Leck, and the Old Rhine, and

the Dovrefield, and the Kiolen ranges, of which the highest point is Skageslõestinden, in the southern range, about 8,670 feet above the level of the sea; and the Uralian or Ouralian chain, extending from the shores of the Arctic Ocean to beyond the source of the Ural river, which falls into the Caspian Sea, and forms, with both, the boundary between Europe and Asia. The south-eastern highlands of Europe are the Caucasian chain of mountains,between the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea, of which the highest peak is Mount Elburz, about 18,500 feet above the level of the sea, and the highest mountain in Europe. The southern highlands of Europe consist of the Balkan (anciently Hamus) Mountains in Turkey, the highest points being about 10,000 feet above the sea level; the Eastern Alps (German, mountains), stretching from the Balkan range to the commencement of the Western Alps, north of the Adriatic, of which the highest summits are Mont Blanc and Mont Rosa, each more than 15,000 feet above the level of the sea, and which border Switzerland on the south, and Italy on the north; the Carpathian Mountains in the north of Hungary and Transylvania; the Hercynian Mountains, in Germany; the Cevennes and the Vosges, in France; the Pyrenees, between France and Spain, of which the highest points or peaks are Mont Perdu and Maladetta, each more than 11,000 feet high; the Cerro Mulha- 44 cen, the highest point of the Sierra Nevada, in Spain, 11,633 feet above the level of the sea; and Etna, the Sicilian volcano, which is nearly of the same elevation as the Pyrenean peaks, being 10,874 feet in height.

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The principal rivers in Europe are the following--The Volga, which rises in the Valdai Hills, in Russia, runs a course through that country of about 2,400 miles, and falls into the Caspian Sea at Astrakhan, where its delta (or land enclosed by its mouths in the shape of the Greek letter A, or delta) is about fourteen miles wide. The Ural, which rises in the Ural Mountains, runs a

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forming the great delta of Holland between Rotterdam and Amsterdam; the latter running through the Lake of Geneva, after a southern course of about

645 miles through France, falls into the Mediterra

nean Sea at the Gulf of Lions, where it also forms a delta; the Arno and the Tiber, on the west of Italy, fall into the Tuscan Sea; and the Po and the Adige, on the east of Italy, fall into the Adriatic; the Xucar and the Ebro, of Spain, fall into the Mediterranean; the Douro and the Tagus, of Portugal, with the Guadalquivir of Spain, fall into the Atlantic; the Dwina and the Onega, of Russia, fall into the White Sea; the Vistula and the Oder, of Germany, fall into the Black Sea;

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course of about 1,800 miles, and falls into the Caspian Sea; the Don, which, after a course of nearly 1,000 miles, falls into the Sea of Azof, at the town of Azof; the Dnieper, which, after a course of a little more than 1,200 miles, falls into the Black Sea at Kherson; the Dniester,

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and the Elbe, of the same country, into the 41 German Ocean, at Hamburg.

The chief lakes of Europe are the following-In the north, Ladoga and Onega, in Russia, the largest in Europe, the former being 130 miles long and 70 miles broad, the latter smaller; Peipus and Ilmen, in the same country, very considerably less (the lastnamed is connected with Lake Ladoga and the river Volga by means of canals, and thus a line of communication is formed between the Baltic and the Caspian Seas); the Lakes Wener, Wetter, and Mälar, in Sweden, with the river Gotha, which form a line of communication between the middle of the Baltic 36 Sea and its entrance. In the south of Europe the lakes of Constance, Lu

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cerne, and Geneva, in Switzerland; and of Maggiore, Lugano, and Como, in Italy, are all remarkable for the beauty of their scenery. The following table contains some useful pers relating to the lakes of Europe.

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