s. 467, sq. Apology for M. Antonia Bourignon, Lond., 1699. Of her works the following have been translated: Light of the World, 1696. Solid Virtue, 1699. Light in Darkness, 1706. Gospel Spirit, 1707. Warning against Quakers, 1708. Academy of Learned Divines, 1708. Comp. Bayle's Dictionnaire.]-Amos Comenius, Swamerdam, and others, adopted her opinions.

Jane Leade was born A. D. 1633, and died 1714 [1704?]; she was an enthusiast. Comp. Corrodi, Geschichte des Chiliasmus iii. p. 403, ss. Arnold, Kirchen- und Ketzergesch. p. 199-298, ss. Hagenbach, Vorlesungen, iv. p. 345. [List of her works in Notes and Queries, 1856, p. 93. Among them (see Lowndes' Bibl. Manual) are The Enochian Walks; Fountain of Gardens, 1678-86, 3 vols.; The Laws of Paradise; Wonders of God's Creation in eight Worlds, 1695. She established the Philadelphia Society in 1697.]

5

Corrodi, 1. c. [Pordage died 1688. Works: Divine and True Metaphysics, 3 vols., and Theologia Mystica.]

The mysticism of the Lutheran Church was of greater speculative importance than that of the Reformed. The former also exerted a greater influence upon the life of the German nation (domestic worship, etc.), than the latter, which was more confined to private individuals and schismatics.

§ 225.

INFLUENCE OF THE CARTESIAN PHILOSOPHY. MORE LIBERAL

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TENDENCIES.

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Mysticism exerted less influence upon the gradual transformation of the doctrinal views of the Reformed Church, than did the philosophical system of Descartes, especially in the Netherlands.' [The Cartesian theologians, in a special manner attempted to reconcile the principles of natural and revealed theology. The influence of the system is seen in the works of Abraham Heidanus, Peter van Mastricht, Solomon van Til, Campejus Vitringa, and J. Marck,'] Balthazzar Bekker, who, in combating the "Enchanted World,' also shook the orthodox doctrines of the Church, belonged to this school. But, apart from the influence of any definite system of philosophy, a more liberal tendency, which endeavored to shake off the yoke of symbolical writings, manifested itself in different quarters. Such was the case in the university of Saumur," where this tendency was connected with Arminian views, and among the Latitudinarians of England. Among the Swiss theologians John Alph. Turretin,11 Ben. Pictet,” and Samuel Werenfels," were distinguished for moderate views, though they remained orthodox; thus they formed, by their principles, as well as the period in which they lived, the transition to the eighteenth century.

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1 Renatus Cartesius (René Descartes), was born A. D. 1596, and died 1650, at Stockholm. His maxim: "Cogito, ergo sum," is well known. His philosophy gave rise to commotions in Holland. Gisbert Voëtius, the principal opponent of Cartesius, charged him A. D. 1639, with atheism. The philosophy of Cartesius was condemned A. D. 1647 (and again 1676), by the senate of the university of Leyden, as well as 1657 by the Synod of Delft. Several of the mystics just mentioned belonged originally to the school of Cartesius. But some orthodox divines also espoused the system. See Tholuck, Das akademische Leben des 17 Jahrb., 2te. Abtheilung, 1854, and in Herzog's Realencycl. ii. 391. Gass, i. 454. [Ebrard, Dogmatik, i. 81-86. On Descartes, see Bouillier, De la Revolution Cartésienne, Paris, 1842, 2d ed., 2 vol., Paris, 1854; Cousin, Leçons; Dugald Stewart's Dissertations; Morell's Hist. of Philos.; Ritter's Gesch. d. Phil.; Edinb. Review, 1852; Simon, Œuvres de Descartes, Introduction, 1844.-Francis Burmann, the son-in-law of Heidanus, adopted the Cartesian system; see § 223, note 29. Clauburg, in Duisburg, 1653–65, and Heinr. Hulsius, 1684–1729, taught it; the latter went so far as to represent theology as the ancilla of philosophy. The Lutheran Job. Wagner, Tübing., wrote against it: Examen elenchticum Atheismi speculativi, 1677. Comp. Tholuck, in Herzog, u. s. on the Cartesian philosophy.]

2 [On the influence of Cartesianism, see Ebrard, Dogmatik, i. § 42. The opposition between the scholastics and federalists was on the relation of the Bible to the doctrine of the church; the contrast between the scholastic divines and the Cartesians, was on the relation of revelation to reason.]

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3 On Heidan. see § 223, note 24.

4

[Peter van Mastricht, professor in Utrecht, died 1806. He opposed Cartesianism in his Theologia theoretico-practica, Amst., 1682, and especially in his Novitiatum Cartes. Gangræna, 1675.]

5

[Van Til, professor in Dort and Leyden, died 1713. He showed himself to be one of the ablest of the Reformed divines, in his Theologiæ utriusque Compendium tum Naturalis tum Revelatæ, Leyd., 1704, mediating between the scholastic divines and the Cartesians, and distinguishing between the articuli puri and mixti of theology-the latter being those which have a basis in the soul, though the clearest light is thrown on them by revelation. See Ebrard, i. 84.]

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[Vitringa was professor in Franeker, died 1722; wrote Doctrina Christ. Rel. per Aphorismos summatim descripta, Franeker, 1690.]

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[Marck, professor in Leyden, died 1731; comp. Theol. Christ. didacticoelenchticum, Gron. 1686.]

• Bekker was born A. D. 1634, in West Friesland, adopted the principles of Cartesius, was dismissed from office on account of his opinions, and died 1698. (Compare the chapter on demonology in the special history of doctrines.) His principal work, Die bezauberte Welt, Franeker, 1692, 4to., contains the germs of the rationalism of latter times.

9

Representatives of the more liberal tendency were, among others, Moses Amyraldus (Amyraud) Joshua de la Place (Placæus), Lewis Capellus, etc. It was especially in opposition to their views that the Formula Consensus was drawn up. On Amyraut, see Schweizer in Zeller's Jahrb., 1852, and

Edmond Sagey, Strasb., 1840. Herzog's Realencycl. sub Amyraut. On the doctrine of Pajou, see Schweizer in Theol. Jahrb., 1853. [See the next § 225 a.]

10 Among them were William Chillingworth (1602-1644), Ralph Cudworth (he died 1688), Tillotson, Stillingfleet, and others. [See § 225 b.]

11

Alphonse Turretin was the son of the strictly orthodox Francis Turretin, born 1671, and died at Geneva A. D. 1737. He wrote: Opuscula Brunsv., 1726, ii. 8.-Dilucidationes phil. theol. et dogmatico-morales, quibus præcipua Capita Theologiæ et naturalis et revelata demonstrantur. Lugd. Bal., 1748, iii. 4, and several other works.

12 Pictet was born a. D. 1655, and died A. D. 1724, at Geneva. He composed a Theologia christiana, Gen., 1696, ii. 8.-Medulla Theologiæ, ibid., 1711, 12, and several other works. [Theology, transl. by Reyroux, Lond., 1847.]

13 Werenfels was born 1657, and died 1740. (Athenæ rauricæ, p. 57, Hanhart, R. in the Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift. Basle, 1824, part 1, p. 22, part 2, p. 53, ss.) He wrote: Opuscula Theologica. Basil., 1782, iii. 8.

§ 225 a.

[THE FRENCH SCHOOL OF SAUMUR.]

[A. Schweizer, Centraldogmen, ii. 225-430, 564–663; and article Amyraut in Herzog's Encycl. Ebrard, Dogmatik, i. § 43.]

2

[Under the influence of John Cameron,' who succeeded Gomarus at Saumur, in 1618, a modification of the Calvinistic system was introduced into the French Reformed theology, represented by the names of Amyraut, Placæus,' and Pajon.* Cameron himself taught, after Piscator, the imputation of Christ's passive obedience alone; and advocated the theory of the hypothetic universalism of Divine grace, which was more fully developed by Amyraut. "The peculiarity of Amyraldism," says Schweizer, "is in the combination of a real particularism with a merely ideal universalism." Placœus (De la Place), advocated the mediate, instead of the immediate imputation of Adam's sin to his posterity. Louis Cappel represented this school in its exegetical services." Though Dallæus, and David Blondel,' defended Amyraldism, and though Andrew Rivetus, and even Du Moulin," at last acknowledged that such a hypothetical universalism of grace (qua actu nemo salvatur) was at least harmless, yet Heidegger was deputed in Switzerland to draw up against it the Formula Consensus, 1675, which, however, never obtained any general authority."]

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[John Cameron was born in Glasgow, ahout 1580; Prof. at Sedan, pastor at Bordeaux, 1608-1618; Prof. at Saumur, 1618-24; died at Montauban, 1625. His Amica Collatio cum Tileno, 1621, is against Arminianism;

also his Defensio de Gratia et libero Arbitrio. His principal works (Prælect. Theol. and Myrotheticum Evangel.) were published by the National Synod of France after his death. See Schweizer, in Herzog's Encycl. Gass, 331.]

2 [Moses Amyraldus (Amyraut), was born at Bourgeuil, in Tourraine, 1596; succeeded Daillé at Saumur, 1626; became Prof. there, in 1632. His views were first published in a treatise on Predestination, 1634, and opposed by Du Moulin and Andr. Rivetus. He was acquitted by the French Synod of 1637, and at Charenton, 1644; the charge renewed at Loudun, 1659, but not carried through. He died 1664. Besides numerous exegetical works, he wrote Theses Salmurienses, La Morale Chrétienne, 1652-60, etc. See Schweizer, ubi supra. Walch, Relig. Streitigkeiten, 1733, i. 454, iii. 736. Gass, ii. 328.]

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3 [Joshua de la Place (Placeus), born 1596, Prof. at Saumur, 1632, died 1655. The theory of original sin, as consisting only in native corruption, was condemned by the French Synod of 1645, though Placæus himself was not named. He accepted the statement of the Synod, by distinguishing between immediate and mediate imputation. He was opposed by Anton Garissol, Prof. in Montauban, and defended by Chs. Drélincourt, pastor at Charenton. His defence, De Imputatione primi Peccati, including an examination of the decree of Charenton, was published, 1655, the year of his death. Opera, Franeker, 1699; Aubencit, 1702, 2, 4to. Comp. A. Schweizer, in Herzog's Encycl., and in Centraldogmen, ii. 319. Aymar, Synodes Nat. ii. 778. Gass, ii. 347.]

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[Claude Pajon, b. 1626, studied in Saumur; Prof. of theology there, after Amyraut's death, 1666; died 1685. He denied the immediate concursus in providence, and the immediate influence of the Holy Spirit in conversion. See Schweizer, ubi supra, ii. 564-663. Gass, ii. 359, sq.]

Б

[Schweizer, in Herzog (Am. transl. i. 132), says, the difference between Arminianism and Amyraldism is “ an essential one. The Arminian has a gratia universalis sub conditione fidei, in opposition to the Reformed doctrine of a gratia particularis absoluta; the Amyraldian, on the contrary, assumes a gratia universalis hypothetica (i. e., sub conditione fidei), in order the better to defend the rigid particularism of election according to the Reformed view."]

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[Blondel, as cited by Haag, La France Protestante, iv. p. 308 (Schweizer, ii. 319), says, that Placæus, in opposition to the view of Pighius and Catharini (Rom. Cath.), that sin comes to us only by the imputation of Adam's sin, defended the theses, that corruption could not originate from imputation, and that original sin passed over from Adam to all his descendants.]

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[Cappel was born 1585, Prof. at Saumur, 1632, died 1658. The Formula Consensus maintained, against him, the inspiration of the Hebrew vowel points. See Bertheau in Herzog.]

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[John Daillé (Dallæus), born 1594, from 1626 to 1670, preached in Paris. De Usu Patrum, 1656, and often; Eng. version by Thos. Smith, 1651 (from the French of that year): revised ed. Phila., 1842. On his part in the Amyraldian controversy, see Schweizer, ii. 387-439. ii. 345.]

Gass,

[David Blondel, born 1591, died 1655. His Primacy of the Church

appeared 1641. On his relation to the school of Saumur, see Schweizer, ii. 304, 305.]

10 [Du Moulin (Peter Molinæus), born 1568, Prof. at Sedan, 1626, died See C. Schmidt, in Herzog, and Schweizer, ubi supra.]

1658.

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[On the Formula Consensus, and its fate, see Schweizer, ii. 439-542, 663, sq. Gass, ii. 353-6.]

§ 225 b.

[THEOLOGY IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND.]

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[The Anglican theology, like its polity, was gradually shaped, and occupied an intermediate position between the Roman Catholic and the Reformed systems. Doctrinal controversies were subordinated to ecclesiastical questions. The earlier reformers,' Cranmer, Latimer, Hooper, Ridley, opposed chiefly the practical abuses of the papacy. The exiles under Mary returned (1559) from Frankfort, Zurich, and Geneva, imbued with the principles of the Reformed (Calvinistic) system. But the polity and faith of England, as shaped under Elizabeth, contained conflicting elements, represented respectively by the Book of Common Prayer, and the Thirty-Nine Articles (which latter were Calvinistic). An intermediate position was occupied by Jewel, Grindal, Pilkington, and Abp. Parker. The Puritan principles were advocated by Hooper, Thos. Cartwright, Wm. Perkins.' As late as 1578, Calvin's Catechism was ordered to be used in the University of Cambridge. The Lambeth Articles of 1595, taught the strictest scheme of predestination. Ireland was represented by the learning and orthodoxy of archbishop Usher. Scotland, with the Presbyterian system, also received from John Knox the principles of the school of Geneva, advocated by Andrew Melville, Henderson, and others.10 At the end of the sixteenth century, and beginning of the seventeenth, the Anglican system was represented by Richard Hooker,' and others;12 the episcopal system was defended by Donne, Field, Andrews, and Jackson." Abp. Laud," pressed the high church and sacramentarian tendencies, in conjunction with Arminian views, (Montagu and Mainwaring,)1 to their extreme consequences, opposed in vain by the moderate Puritans, Davenant, Bp. Reynolds, Bp. Hall, Williams, Carleton, and Barlow. The conflict of the systems resulted in the temporary triumph of Presbyterianism and Calvinism in the Westminster Assembly," followed by the reaction under the Restoration (Charles II.) The Anglican system was subsequently developed and expounded in a prolific and learned theological literature, which had for its ideal the theology of the church of

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