1 Georg Freidrich Wilhelm Hegel, born 1770, was, from the year 1818, professor of philosophy in the university of Berlin, and died 1831. His entire works were published Berlin, 1832-45, 18 voll. Among them are: Phänomenologie des Geistes, Bamb., 1807. Encyklopädie der philosophischen Wissenchaften, Heidelb., 1817, edit. 4th, 1845. Vorlesungen über die Philosophie der Religion, edited by Marheineke, Berlin, 1832, ii.-He also wrote a remarkable preface to Heinrichs' Religionsphilosophie, 1822 (in respect to the religious sentiment.)-Concerning the latest controversies see H. Leo, die Hegelingen, Halle, 1838, 39. Kahnis, Ruge und Hegel, Quedl., 1838. Rheinwald, Repertorium, xxxi. p. 28, ss. [On Hegel, see New American Cyclopedia, sub voce. His works and life are described in Rosenkranz, Hegel's Leben, 1844. In English have appeared his Philosophy of History, by Sibree, in Bohn's Library, 1857; his Subjective Logic, by Sloman and Wallon, 1855. In French, his Aesthetics by Bénard, 5 vols., 1840–52; his Logic, 2 vols., by A. Véra, 1860, who also in 1855 published an Introduction à la Philosophie de Hegel, the fullest account of his system. outside of Germany. Among the chief criticisms of his theory in Germany are Schelling in his later works; H. Ulrici, Ueber Princip und Methode der Hegelschen Philosophie, 1841; A. Trendelenburg, Die logische Frage in Hegel's System, and Logische Untersuchungen, 1840; G. A. Gabler, Die Hegelsche Philosophie, 1833; K. P. Fischer, in his Grundzüge des Systems der Philosophie, 1854, sq.; C. H. Weisse, Ueber den gegenwärtigen Standpunkt der phil. Wissenschaft, and in other works; Rosenkranz, Die logische Idee, 1859-60; Erdmann, in Gesch. d. neueren Philos.; J. H. Fichte, in his Gründzüge zum Systeme der Philosophie, 3 Bde., 1833-46, etc. C. L. Michelet, Schelling und Hegel, 1839. The Hegelian school was represented by the Jahrbücher f. wissenschafliche Kritik, 1827, sq.; the left wing, by Ruge and the Hallische Jahrbücher, 1838. A new Journal, advocating the system has been started by C. L. Michelet, Der Gedanke, 1860. The first vol. contains a full bibliography of the school.-The Zeitschrift f. Phil. und spekul Theol., 1837–48, ed. I. H. Fichte, and Zeitschrift f. Phil. und phil. Kritik, ed. by Ulrici and others, since 1849, opposes the Hegelian pantheism.]

2 Karl Daub, born 1765, was professor of theology and ecclesiastical counsellor in Heidelberg, and died 1836. He had passed through the entire development of modern philosophy from Kant to Hegel. His works were published by Marheineke and Dittenberger, Berl., 1838, ss. We mention: Theologumena s. doctrinæ de Relig. Christ. ex Natura Dei perspecta. repetenda Capita potiora, Heidelb., 1806. Einleitung in das Studium der Dogmatik, aus dem Standpuncte der Religion, ibid., 1810.-Judas Ischariot, oder das Böse im Verhältnisse zum Guten betrachtet, 3 parts, ibid., 1816– 19. Die dogmatische Theologie jetziger Zeit, oder die Selbstsucht in der Wissenschaft des Glaubens, ibid., 1833.-System der christlichen Dogmatik (first part) edit. by Marheineke and Dittenburger, Berlin, 1841. Comp. (Strauss) Daub und Schleiermacher in his Charakteristiken u. Kritiken, Lpz., 1839. Rosenkranz, Erinnerungen an K. Daub, Berlin, 1837. [W. Herrmann, Die speculative Theologie in ihrer Entwicklung durch Daub dargestellt, Hamburgh, 1847.] Among the disciples of Daub (in part too,

of Schleiermacher) a new path in theology has been struck out by Richard Rothe of Heidelberg, in his Theologische Ethik, Wittenb., 1845, 2 Bde. [Compare his articles Zur Dogmatik, in the Studien und Kritiken, 1859-60.]

3 Philip Marheineke, born 1780, was professor of theology in the university of Berlin, and died 1846. He wrote: Grundlinien der christlichen Dogmatik als Wissenschaft, Berlin, 1819, 1827. [Theol. Vorlesungen, ed. Matthies und Vatke, 5 Bde., 1847, sq.]

4 Gabler, Göschel, Rosenkranz, Schaller, Rothe. See Thilo, u. s.

5

3 D. F. Strauss, die christliche Glaubenslehre in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung und im Kampfe mit der modernen Wissenschaft dargestellt, ii. Stuttg., 1840, 41. Comp. K. Ph. Fischer, die speculative Dogmatik von Strauss, erster Band, geprüft, Tub., 1841. Thilo, ubi supra. [Comp. Rosenkranz. Kritik d. Strauss'schen Glaubenslehre, 1845. Kahnis, Die moderne Wissenschaft des Dr. Strauss, and die wissenschaftliche Basis der Strauss'schen Dogmatik, 1842. Sartorius, Die christliche Glaubenslehre; Beurtheilung der Straussïschen Dogmatik, 1842.-In more recent times, this tendency has been most ably advocated by Tübingen, as represented by Ferdinand Christian Baur, born 1792, died 1860, at first a disciple of Schleiermacher, and by degrees applying the principles of the Hegelian system to the reconstruction of Christian history and of Christian doctrines. Among his works are Christian Gnosis, 1835; replies to Mohler's Symbolism, 1836, sq.; History of the Trinity, 3 vols., 1843-5; History of the Atonement, 1838; History of Doctrines, 1847, 1858. Schwegler and Zeller are his chief disciples. Comp..Baur's work on the Tübingen School, 2d ed., 1860, and Karl Hase, Die Tübinger Schule, 1855. A. Hilgenfeld, Das Urchristenthum. Hengstenberg's Evang. Kirchenzeitung, 1846; Keyser, Rev. de Theologie, 1856; Uhlhorn in Jahrb. f. deutsche Theologie, 1858 (transl. into French by Sardinoux, in Revue Chrétienne, Suppl., 1861); Neue Evang. Kirchenzeitung, Jan., 1861; L'Ecole de Tubingue in Revue Germanique, 1861; Christ. Examiner, Boston, 1858. On Bruno Bauer and his criticism of the Gospel, see Gutachten d. evang. Theol. Facultäten, Berl., 1842.]

• Among those who lived during the period of Kant and Fichte we may mention Reinhold, Fries, Krug, Bouterweck, and others; in modern times, Ritter, I. H. Fichte, C. H. Weisse, K. Ph. Fischer, Billroth, Erdmann, Drobisch, and others. [The school of Herbart is contending with that of Hegel for supremacy, on the opposite (viz., a realistic) basis; (revival of the doctrine of monads?) J. F. Herbart, b. 1776, Prof. in Göttingen, d. 1841. Works, ed. by Hartenstein, 12 vols., Lpz., 1850-52; Minor Philos. Works, with biography, by Hartenstein, 3 vols., 1841-3. Among his disciples are M. W. Drobrich, Prof. in Leipz., Religionsphil., 1840, Math. Psychologie, 1845, etc.; Gustav Hartenstein, Metaphysik, 1836; Ethik, 1844; G. F. Tante, Religionsphil., 1840–52; F. Exner, d. 1853, Psychologie der Hegelschen Schule, 1843-5; Theod. Waitz, Psychologie, 1849; F. H. Allihn, Verderbliche Einfluss d. hegelschen Phil., etc.; E. A. Thilo, Moderne Rechtsphil., 1860; Rob. Zimmermann, Prof. in Wien, etc. The school is represented by the Zeitschrift f. d. exacte Philosophie, ed. by Allihn and Zeller, 1860.]

The principles of Schleiermacher were adopted, though with a stronger

leaning towards orthodox theology, by Nitzsch (comp. § 282, note 7), and A. D. Ch. Twesten, Vorlesungen über die Dogmatik der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche. ii., Hamb., 1826, edit. 3d, 1834. On the other hand, Carl Hase allowed to critical and speculative tendencies a greater influence: see his Lehrbuch der evangelischen Dogmatik, Stuttg., 1826; fourth improved edition, 1850; Gnosis, oder evangelische Glaubenslehre für die Gebildeten in der Gemeinde, Leipzig, 1827, ii.-The most recent systems of theology are J. T. Beck, 1850; Rothe, Ethik, 1845-6; Julius Müller [Lehre von der Sünde, 2 Bde., 4th ed., 1838; transl. in Clark's Edinb. Library]; Liebner (Christologie, Bd. i.), 1849; J. P. Lange, 1849-51 [Christliche Dogmatik, i., Phil. Dogmatik, ii., Positive, iii., Angewandte]; Martensen, 1850-6 [from the Danish into German]; Ebrard, 1851-2 [Christliche Dogmatik; F. A. Philippi, Kirchliche Glaubenslehre, 3 Bde., Stuttg., 1854-9, to be continued; J. C. K. Hofmann, Der Schriftbeweis, ein theologischer Versuch, 3 Bde. Nördlingen, 1852, sq., 2d ed., 1859; G. Thomasius, Christi Person und Werk, 3 vols., 1853–9; Daniel Schenkel, Die christl. Dogmatik vom Standpunkte des Gewissens, 2 Bde., 1859-60; Ch. H. Weisse, Philosophische Dogmatik, 2 Bde. 1855-60, and others.] Though representing different tendencies, yet these have as a common aim, to give a philosophical basis to the Biblical and orthodox system of faith, and thus to conquer rationalism by spiritual supremacy.

That tendency which endeavored to bring about a reconciliation between the two extremes was, at first, chiefly represented in the Theologische Zeitschrift, edited by Schleiermacher, De Wette, and Lücke, and afterwards in the Studien und Kritiken, edited by Ullmann and Umbreit (from the year 1828).-There have since been several other periodicals of this class, particularly the Zeitschrift f. christliche Wissenschaft und christ. Leben [founded by Neander, Nitzsch, Müller, Tholuck, and others], from 1850: the Jahrbücher f. deutsche Theologie, by Liebner, Ehrenfeuchter [Dorner], etc., Stuttg., 1856.-The organ of the more advanced Hegelian party is the Theologische Jahrbücher, since 1842, by Baur, Zeller [now the Zeitschrift f. wissenschaftliche Theologie, ed. by Hilgenfeld.]

§ 284.

THE LATEST RATIONALISTIC REACTION.

After the destructive tendency, in its self-delusion, had advanced even to the denial and dissolution of the religious self-consciousness,' the modern Rationalismus vulgaris came forward with all its claims to become a religion for the people, fitted to the wants of the times, and denuded as far as possible of all dogmas; in short, to be for the people what, it said, religion had long been for a great part of educated minds. This was the aim of the so-called Protestant Friends, or Friends of Light (Lichtfreunde), started in Köthen, who obtained adherents in different countries, especially in the north of Germany, and were soon divided up into several branch unions, and free churches. For the development of the History of Doctrines they have only a negative importance, and

3

2

their place is rather in the transient story of the day than in the earnest history of religious truth. Of far greater moment is the struggle on fundamental principles, which has again sprung up between the conservative ecclesiastical party and the party of progress, as represented by Stahl and Bunsen.*

Ludwig Feuerbach, Das Wesen des Christenthums, Lpz., 1841 (in the service of a pneumatic water-cure!); Das Wesen der Religion, 2te. Aufl., 1850. [Essence of Christianity, transl. by Marian Evans, Lond., New York, 1855. "Religion is a dream of the human mind;" "all theology is anthropology," etc. Feuerbach has also written Charakteristiken des modernen Afterchristenthums; P. Bayle, 1838; Philos. und Christenthums, 1839; Leibnitzsche Philosophie, 1837, etc.]

2 Uhlich and Wislicenus.-A meeting was held in Köthen, May 29, 1844. Wislicenus work, Ob Schrift, ob Geist, 1845.-Thirteen Articles.-Uhlich's Reformation Theses.-See Niedner, Kirchengesch., p. 890, who gives the titles of the works.-Another controversy was that of Dulon in Bremen; compare the Votum of the Heidelberg faculty, drawn up by Schenkel,

1852.

$ Societies in Breslau and Königsberg. Rupp, after his exclusion from the Free Church was a preacher of the Free Evangelical Church in Königsberg. See Niedner, as above. [Hase, p. 589.]

4

Bunsen, Zeichen der Zeit, Leipz., 1855; Gott in der Geschichte, 3 Bde., Leipz., 1857. These works gave rise to a controversy.-The Protestantische Kirchenzeitung, edited by H. Krause, may be considered as the organ of the freer Protestant tendency, introduced by Schleiermacher. [Christian Charles Josias Bunsen, d. 1791, ambassador in England, 1841-53, died Nov. 28, 1860. Among his works are, history of the Passion and Still Week, 1841; Church of the Future, 1845, translated, 1847; Eygpt's Place in Universal Hist., 4 vols., English by Cottrel, 1848-60; Ignatius, 1847; Hippolytus and his Age, 4 vols., 1855, and then 6 vols., 1854, sq. (in English, 2 in German, 1852, sq.); Signs of the Times, transl.; Bible Work, not completed, 8 parts, 1858-60. Comp. B. Baehring, Bunsen's Bibelwerk, und seine Bedentung für die Gegenwart, Lpz., 1861. H. Gelzer, Bunsen als Staatsman und Schriftsteller, Gotha, 1861.-Frederick Julius Stahl, Prof. in Erlangen, called to Berlin, 1841. Works: Protestantische Kirchenverfassung; Rechtsphilosophie. Leading the party of the reaction, he has been involved in controversies on Protestantism and Catholicism, on the Union (advocating the claims of High Lutheranism), and against the Evangelical Alliance: Was ist die Revolution, 3te, Aufl., 1852: Der Protestantismus als politisches Princip., 4tc., Aufl., 1853; Die katholischen Widerlegungen, 1854; Christl. Toleranz, 1855; Wider Bunsen, 1856 (Schenkel, Für Bunsen, Wider Stahl); Der Christl. Staat, 1858; Die Lutherische Kirche und die Union, 1859, 2te. Aufl., 1860.]

$285.

THE PROTESTANT CHURCH AND DOCTRINE OUTSIDE OF GERMANY.

6

5

The doctrinal controversies related in the preceding sections (§ 279-284), were almost entirely confined to Protestant Germany, and partially affected Denmark and those parts of Reformed Switzerland, in which the German language is spoken.' Nearly all the other Protestant countries either took no notice of these conflicts, or formed erroneous and onesided opinions concerning them. Lutheran orthodoxy maintained on the whole its ground in Sweden.3 In the Netherlands, the advocates of a more moderate (Arminian) tendency opposed the rigid system of the orthodoxy, established in the canons of the Synod of Dort. In England there were some partial deviations from the 39 Articles; and some new sects sprung up. The theology called Puseyism, nurtured in the university of Oxford, tended in both worship and dogma towards the Catholic Church; distinguishing however between the genuine Catholic and the Roman Catholic.-The Evangelical Alliance, started in London in 1846, is a grand attempt to do away with the ecclesiastical and dogmatic dissensions; but German theology can hardly be satisfied with its formal articles.-Nor did Protestant theology in France keep pace with the German culture (with the exception of Strasburg); the laity were here the first to display a spirit of more profound inquiry into religious truths. 10 The commotions in the Church of Geneva and the Canton de Vaud cannot be compared (either as to matter, or to form) with the contests between Rationalism and Supernaturalism in Germany." But the barriers which have hitherto prevented foreign churches from appropriating the results of German learning seem gradually disappearing, and a growing desire manifests itself to become acquainted with the religious conflicts of the birth-place of the Reformation.

1 In Denmark the controversy between Rationalism and Supernaturalism was carried on by Clausen and Grundtvig (see the Evangelische Kirchenzeitung, 1827, etc. Studien und Kritiken, 1834, part 4; Hase, Church History, pp. 525, 526, 561-2.) [Rudelbach, in Zeitschrift f. lutherische Theologie, 1841; and, more fully, 1859-60, in opposition to the later high church Lutheranism of Grundtvig. Among the Reformed Churches of Switzerland in the last century, Zurich was especially affected by the theological tendencies then prevailing in Germany. (Hess and Lavater were the representatives of Supernaturalism, though each in a different way-Häfeli, Stols, and Schulthess, of Rationalism.) The theology of Schleiermacher in the course of this century was here represented by L. Usteri, the author of the