verts, renders the best possible contribution to the temporal good of society. It is enough, that they have been rescued from the dominion of sensuality;-it is enough, that they have become the disciples of that book, which, while it teaches them to be fervent in spirit, teaches them also to be not slothful in business;—it is enough, that the Christian faith has been formed with such power in their hearts, as to bring out the Christian morals into visible exemplification upon their history;—it is enough, that the principle within them, if it do not propagate its own likeness in others, can at least, like the salt to which they have been compared, season a whole vicinity with many of its kindred and secondary attributes. There is not a more familiar exhibition in humble life, than that alliance, in virtue of which a Christian family is almost always sure to be a well-conditioned family. And yet its members are utterly unversant, either in the maxims or in the speculations of political science. They occupy the right place in a rightly-constituted and well-going mechanism; but the mechanism itself is what they never hear of, and could not comprehend. Their Christian adviser never reads them a lesson from the writings of any economist; and yet the moral habit to which the former has been the instrument of conducting them, is that which brings them into a state of practical conformity with the soundest and most valuable lessons which the latter can devise. And now that habit and character and education among the poor, have become the mighty elements of all that is recent in political theory-as well may the inventor of a philosophical apparatus, disown the aid of those artisans, who, in utter ignorance of its use, only know how to prepare and put together its materials-as may the most sound and ingenious speculator in the walks of civil economy, disown the aid of those Christian labourers, who, in utter ignorance of the new doctrine of population, only know how to officiate in that path of exertion, by which the members of our actual population may be made pure, and prudent, and pious.Christian and Economic Polity of a Nation.

XXVI. SECTION VIII. § 8.-The effect of a welladministered Parochial System in Scotland.

There is a most frightful picture given of the state of Scotland in 1698, by Fletcher of Saltoun, as appears from the following extract

There are at this day in Scotland (besides a great number of families very meanly provided for by the church boxes, with

others who, with living upon bad food, fall into various diseases) 200,000 people begging from door to door. These are not only no ways advantageous, but a very grievous burden to so poor a country; and though the number of them be perhaps double to what it was formerly, by reason of the present great distress, yet in all times there have been about 100,000 of these vagabonds, who have lived without any regard or submission either to the laws of the land, or even of those of God and nature; fathers incestuously accompanying their own daughters, the son with the mother, and the brother with the sister. No magistrate could ever discover or be informed which way any of these wretches died, or that ever they were baptized. Many murderers have been discovered among them; and they are not only a most unspeakable oppression to the poor tenants, (who, if they give not bread or some sort of provision to perhaps forty such villains in one day, are sure to be insulted by them,) but they rob many poor people who live in houses distant from any neighbourhood. In years of plenty many thousands of them meet together in the mountains, where they feast and riot for many days; and at country weddings, markets, burials, and other the like public occasions, they are to be seen, both men and women, perpetually drunk, cursing, blaspheming, and fighting together.

Does it appear, from historical records, that that state o. things continued long after the date of the work of Fletcher of Saltoun? It appears, from very distinct historical documents, that that state of things subsided almost per saltum, very suddenly indeed, when the population had leave to repose from the religious persecutions, and the parochial system of education was again general. They were besides plied from Sabbath to Sabbath by an efficient and acceptable clergy, in consequence of which, the transformation appears to have been quite marvellous. The extract I have now read, refers to the year 1698.

66

are

The extract I am about to read, refers to a period of time only nineteen years distant, 1717. It is taken from Defoe, the author of Robinson Crusoe. "The people," says he, restrained in the ordinary practice of common immoralities, such as swearing, drunkenness, slander, fornication, and the like. As to theft, murder, and other capital crimes, they come under the cognizance of the civil magistrate as in other countries; but in those things which the church has power to punish, the people being constantly and impartially prosecuted, they are thereby the more restrained, kept sober, and under government, and you may pass through twenty towns in Scotland without seeing any broil, or hearing one oath sworn in the streets; whereas, if a blind man was to come from there into England, he shall know the first town he sets his foot in within

the English border, by hearing the name of God blasphemed and profanely used, even by the very little children on the street."-Evidence before the Commons' Committee.

XXVII. SECTION IX. § 8.-Effect of a Poor Rate in Reducing Wages to the level of a Charity Allowance.

The following little narrative is by the overseer of Long Burton, in Dorsetshire; a parish with a population of only three hundred and twenty-seven, and therefore peculiarly adapted for the distinct exhibition of any influence which its parochial economy might have on the state of its inhabitants.

The overseer had three able-bodied men out of employment, and whom it fell upon him to dispose of. The farmers all saturated with workmen, could not take them in; and rather than send them to work upon the roads, he applied to a master mason in the neighbourhood, who engaged to take their services at the low rate of six shillings in the week-the parish to make up the deficiency to the three men, so as that they should, on the whole, have fifteen pence a-week for each member of their families. The mason had previously in his employment, from seven to ten men, at the weekly wage of eight or nine shillings each. But no sooner did he take in these three supernumeraries from the parish at six shillings, than he began to treat anew with his old workmen, and threatened to discharge them if they would not consent to a lower wage. This of course would have thrown them all upon the parish, for the difference between their reduced and their present wages; upon perceiving which, the overseer instantly drew back his three men from the mason, and at length contrived to dispose of them otherwise. Upon this the wages of the journeymen masons reverted to what they were before.-Christian and Economic Polity of a Nation.

1 The following is an extract of a letter received from the overseer, Mr. Poole

"The facts respecting the three men at Long Burton, were as follows: we had three able men out of employ, and rather than send them on the roads to work, we engaged with Mr. Perratt, the mason, for them, at six shillings per week each. Mr. Perratt was at that time giving his men (from seven to ten men) eight or nine shillings each. Mr. Perratt then saw he could get men at a lower rate, and informed some of his old hands that he should discharge and lower the wages; therefore, in consequence those men (or many of them) would, at their discharge, become very burdensome to the parish of Long Burton. We immediately saw our error, of letting him ha e men at a low rate, (for recollect, it was one or two shillings lower than the farmers were giving at that time,) and took the men back on the roads at certain prices, so as to make their earnings fifteen pence per head, for their families; which, with Mr. Perratt's six shillings per week, we were obliged to make up from the parish to fifteen pence per head, per week."

XXVIII. SECTION IX. § 10.-Proportion between the Price of Labour and the Number of Labourers.

Labour might be considered in the light of a marketable commodity-the supply of which is measured by the number of labourers and the price of which is regulated, as in other instances, by the proportion between this supply, and the demand. This price partakes, with that of the necessaries of life, in being liable to great fluctuation; and on the same principle, too, but in a sort of reverse direction. It is the urgent need of subsistence which so raises articles of the first necessity, even upon a very slight shortcoming from their usual quantity in the market. And it is the same urgent need of subsistence which so lowers the price of labour; and that, upon a very slight overplus in the number of labourers. What, in fact, looking to one side of the negotiation, may be called the demand of the capitalists for labour,-when looking to the other side of it, may be called the demand of the labourers for employment; and, in this latter demand, there may be all the importunity and vehemence of a demand for the necessaries of life. Employment, in fact, is the vehicle on which these necessaries are brought to their door; and should there be more hands than are wanted, rather than be thrown out of the competition altogether, there will be a general cheapening of their labour, and so that the fall in its price shall go greatly beyond the excess in the number of labourers. Men must have subsistence; and if employment be the essential stepping-stone to this, men must have employment; and thus it is that capitalists have the same control over workmen, when there is an excess in their number, which the holders of the necessaries of life have over their customers, when there is a deficiency in the crop. And so, the price of labour too is a most tremulously variable element, and has as wide a range of fluctuation as the price of corn. A very small excess in the number of labourers will create a much greater proportional reduction in their wages. Should twenty thousand weavers of muslin be adequate, on a fair recompense for their work, to meet the natural demand that there is in that branch of manufacture, an additional thousand of these unemployed, and going about with their solicitations and offers among the master-manufacturers, would bring a fearful distress and The wages deficiency on the circumstances of the whole body.

would fall by much more than a twentieth part of what they were originally; and thus, by a very trifling excess in the number of workmen, might a very sore and widely felt depression be brought upon the comfort and sufficiency of the lower orders.

Now, however melancholy this contemplation might be in the first instance, yet, by dwelling upon it a little further, we shall be led to discover certain outlets and reparations that might cause us to look more hopefully than ever on the future destinies of our species. One thing is clear, that if so small a fractional excess in the supply of labour, over its demand, is enough to account for a very great deficiency in its remuneration, then, after all, it may lie within the compass of a small fractional relief to bring back the remuneration to its proper level, and so restore the desirable equilibrium between the wages of a workman and the wants of his family. It is comfortable to know, that the misery of an overwrought trade is capable of being retrieved on such easy terms-and that could either the present small excess of labourers be otherwise disposed of, or their future annual supply be somewhat and slightly reduced, then might well-paid, and well-conditioned industry, that most cheerful of all spectacles, again be realised. Could any expedient be devised by which the number of labourers might be more equalised to the need that there is for them, then, instead of the manufacturers having so oppressive a control over the workmen, workmen might in some degree have a control over manufacturers. We should certainly regard it as a far more healthful state of the community, if our workmen, instead of having to seek employment, were to be sought after; and that masters had to go in quest of service, rather than that labourers had to go a-begging for it. It is most piteous to see a population lying prostrate and overwhelmed under the weight of their own numbers; nor are we aware of a finer object, both for the wisdom and benevolence of patriotism, than to devise a method by which the lower orders might be rescued from this state of apparent helplessness. This would be done, if they were only relieved from the pressure of that competition by which they now elbow out, or beat down each other; but nothing more certain, than that not till the number of workmen bears a less proportion to the need which there is for them, will they be able to treat more independently with their employers, or make a stand against all such terms of remuneration, as would degrade their families beneath the par of human comfort.

That a very small excess of workmen over the need which there is for them, will create much more than a proportional depression in their wages, is just as true, as that a very small deficiency in the supply of the corn-market will create much more than a proportional rise in the price of that commodity. Both are true, and on the same principle too. It is, in either case, a very sore mischief, traceable to a very slight cause; and which, therefore, perhaps, may admit of being cured by the application of a very slight corrective. It appears, by M'Pherson's