In Greece and Rome astrology proper ceased to have the importance in augury which it had maintained in Chaldea, while, as the word augury (avigerium) itself would indicate, the preeminence had been given to omens taken from the flight of birds. Both among the Greeks and Romans much of the art of augury depended on the cardinal points of the compass. The Greek augurs always faced the north, while the Roman augurs faced the south. Omens in the east were generally lucky, while those in the west were unlucky. Hence the Greek had his right hand synonymous with good fortune, the Roman originally his left. Later in Roman history, however, sinister (left) became a synonyme for bad fortune, and dexter (right) for good. Auguries were made both from the flight and cries of birds. Lightning was also observed by the augurs, as well as other striking phenomena, such as meteors, winds, and eclipses. The direction in which a bird flew, the crowing of a cock, the line of the electric flash, and the manner in which a cooped chicken picked his corn, were prominent augurial elements. Some even more trivial and accidental occurrences were reckoned ominous, such as an animal crossing one's path, a fit of sneezing or sudden melancholy, the spilling of salt on the table, or of wine upon one's clothes. The power of the Greek and Roman augurs was very great. They held their offices for life, regardless of character. In Rome they were at first three in number, and were chosen one from each of the three tribes of the patricians. They were elected by the comitia curiata, a patrician assembly, until the Ogulnian law (300 B. C.) admitted the plebeians and enlarged the number of augurs, then four, to nine, subsequently increased to 15. Every election had to be ratified by the college itself. This original power of veto afterward resulted in the usurpation by the college of the right to elect its own members by cooptation (452 B. C.), which right they retained, with the exception of the first election of plebeian augurs, for 348 years, until the passage of the Domitian law (104), which removed the power of election to the tribes. The most authoritative enactments of the comitia were repeatedly annulled by the entrance of an augur into the assembly, pronouncing the words Alio die ("On another day"). The order of augurs gradually declined after the admission of the plebeian element, until it was abolished, with paganism in general, by Theodosius the Great, about A. D. 390.

AUGUST, the 8th month of the year, derived from the Roman calendar. The Romans called it originally Sextilis, or the 6th month of their year, which began with March. Julius Cæsar made it 30 days in length, and Augustus increased it to 31. As it was the month in which Augustus Cæsar had entered upon his first consulship, had celebrated three triumphs in the city, had received the allegiance of the

soldiers who occupied the Janiculum, had subdued Egypt, and put an end to civil war, the senate, in order to flatter him, changed the name of the month to Augustus, in the same way that Quinctilis had been changed to Julius under Julius Cæsar. The Flemings and Germans have adopted the word August to signify harvest. Thus oogst maend (Flemish) is the harvest month; so the German Augstwagen, a harvest wagon; and the Dutch oogsten, to gather corn from the field. The Spaniards use the verb agostar, to gather in harvest; and the French and Spaniards have the phrases faire l'août and hacer su augusta, to signify harvesting. The Saxons in Britain named August the weed month. The old Germans named it Weinkoch, the wine-press month.

AUGUST FRIEDRICH EBERHARD, prince of Würtemberg, uncle of King Charles I., a Prussian general of cavalry, born Jan. 24, 1813. He entered the Prussian service in 1830, became in 1858 commanding general of the Prussian guards, and took part in the wars against Austria (1866) and France (1870), favorable mention of his name being made in the reports of the battles of Gravelotte and Sedan.

AUGUST WILHELM, prince of Prussia, brother of Frederick the Great, and general of the Prussian army, born in Berlin in 1722, died in 1758. He took an active part in the Silesian campaigns, and distinguished himself at the battle of Hohenfriedberg (June, 1745); but in the seven years' war, owing to the fatal retreat of Zittau in 1756, he incurred the displeasure of his brother, and withdrew from the army. This conflict between the two brothers led to a correspondence, which was published in 1769.

AUGUSTA, a N. W. county of Virginia, bordering on West Virginia and the Blue Ridge; area, 900 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 28,763, of whom 6,737 were colored. It was distinguished for its loyalty to the revolutionary cause, for which it was commended by Washington. The surface is elevated and uneven; the soil, which is drained by the sources of the Shenandoah and James rivers, is calcareous, and one of the most fertile in the state. In 1870 the county produced 463,276 bushels of wheat, 29,835 of rye, 280,380 of Indian corn, 234,492 of oats, 19,671 tons of hay, 23,291 lbs. of wool, and 353,335 of butter. The quantity of hay was greater than in any other county of the state, and of wheat and butter than in any other except Loudon. Fine limestone underlies much of the surface. The celebrated Weyer's or Wier's cave, Madison cave, and the Chimneys are in this county. Capital, Staunton.

AUGUSTA, a city of Maine, capital of the state and of Kennebec county, situated at the head of sloop navigation on the Kennebec river, 43 m. from its mouth, 63 m. by railroad N. N. E. of Portland, 72 m. S. W. of Bangor, and 171 m. N. N. E. of Boston; pop. in 1860, 7,609; in 1870, 7,808. The city lies on both sides of the

river, which is spanned by a bridge 520 ft. long. It is well laid out, and has many handsome buildings and a great abundance of shade trees and shrubbery. The state house, built of white granite, is considered the handsomest in New England except that of Montpelier, Vt.; the court house is the best and most convenient in the state; and the Maine insane asylum is a splendid granite structure, overlooking a landscape of peculiar beauty. The United States arsenal is on the E. side of the river. Just above the city a dam 1,000 ft. long provides an immense water power, while canals at the E. end render the river navigable N. of Augusta. The Maine Central railroad (Augusta division) runs through the city. There are 8 churches, 7 hotels, 5 newspapers (1 daily and 4 weekly), 3 banks, and 2 savings institutions. Lumber forms the chief manufacturing interest. An extensive cotton factory has recently been erected here.

AUGUSTA, a city of Georgia, capital of Richmond county, at the head of navigation on the Savannah river, 132 m. by railroad N. N. W. of the city of Savannah, and 137 m. N. W. of Charleston, S. C.; pop. in 1860, 12,493, of whom 4,049 were colored; in 1870, 15,386, of whom 6,390 were colored. It was laid out in 1735, and became an important point in military operations during the revolutionary war, being alternately in the possession of the royal troops and the Americans. The city was incorporated in 1798, and the chief magistrate bore the appellation of intendant until 1818, when the first mayor was elected. The city is very handsomely laid out on an extended plain on the W. bank of the Savannah river, with wide streets crossing each other at right angles. The principal business thoroughfare, Broad street, is 2 m. long and 165 ft. wide. Greene street, the most beautiful in the city, is 168 ft. wide, and has a row of stately shade trees on either side along its entire length. The principal buildings are the city hall, masonic hall, odd fellows' hall, and the opera house. The city hall was completed in 1824 at a cost of $100,000. In front of it stands a granite monument 45 ft. high, erected by the city in 1849 to the memory of Hall, Gwinnett, and Walton, signers of the Declaration of Independence. An orphan asylum, 178 ft. by 78, is building at a cost of $150,000. The medical college of Georgia, situated here, in 1868 had 8 professors, 97 students, and a library of 4,000 volumes. The city water works were completed at a heavy cost in 1861. The water is drawn from the canal and forced into a tank holding 185,000 gallons in a cylindrical brick tower standing 115 ft. above the general level of the city. The Augusta canal, 9 m. long, brings the waters of the Savannah river near the city, some 40 ft. above the level, and thus affords inexhaustible power for factories. Chief among these is the "Augusta Factory," with 508 looms, employing 500 hands and producing in 1871 8,527,728 yards of cloth. There are 5

extensive flouring mills, which in 1871 consumed about 409,000 bushels of corn and wheat. In 1871 the city contained 6 banks, 4 founderies (besides the extensive foundery and machine shops of the Georgia railroad), 2 tobacco factories, 4 hotels, 21 churches (8 of which are for colored people), 2 academies, an arsenal, several hospitals, and many benevolent societies. There were 700 white and 500 colored pupils enrolled in the public schools. There are 2 daily newspapers, 2 weekly, 1 semi-monthly, and 1 monthly published here. In 1869 the assessed value of real estate, exclusive of the Augusta factory property, was $6,300,000, and in 1871, $6,593,420. For the year ending April 1, 1869, the sales of cotton amounted to $8,246,867, and for the year ending April 1, 1871, $11,575,846. The bonded debt of the city on Jan. 1, 1871, was $1,355,250, while the assets amounted to $1,302,610. Augusta has railroad communication with all the leading markets of the country. The Central railroad extends from Augusta to Savannah and Macon; the Charlotte, Columbia, and Augusta, from Augusta to Charlotte, N. C., via Columbia, S. C., being an important link in the great short passenger route between New York and New Orleans; the main line of the Georgia railroad extends from Augusta to Atlanta, with branches to Washington, Warrenton, and Athens. The Macon and Augusta railroad affords connection with the former city, and the South Carolina railroad connects Augusta with Charleston, Columbia, and Camden, and with the Wilmington and Manchester railroad at Kingville. Several other railroads are projected, the most important of which is the Port Royal railroad to Port Royal, S. C., a distance of 110 m., which will give Augusta a shorter route to the seaboard.-The arsenal at Augusta was seized by the confederate authorities Jan. 24, 1861.

AUGUSTA, John, a Bohemian theologian, born in Prague in 1500, died Jan. 13, 1575. He studied theology at the school of Waclaw Koranda. On the death of this master Augusta went to Wittenberg, and entered into close communion with Luther and Melanchthon. He became later bishop of the Bohemian Brethren, brought about an agreement between that sect and the Protestants, and induced the Brethren to refuse their cooperation to Ferdinand I. in the Smalcaldic war against the Protestants; a contumacy which Ferdinand avenged after the war was over by banishing the whole sect and arresting the principal preachers. Augusta, who had attempted to escape in the garb of a peasant, was taken in chains to Prague, and thrown into prison. He was offered his liberty on condition of making public recantation and becoming either a Catholic or a Utraquist. He was ready to profess himself a Utraquist, but not to recant in public, and he accordingly remained in prison 16 years. The death of Ferdinand (1564) released him, but he was obliged to promise not to preach again.

AUGUSTA HISTORIA

AUGUSTA HISTORIA, the name given to a series of Roman biographers of the emperors from the accession of Hadrian (117) to the death of Carinus (385), the predecessor of Diocletian. The writers included in this collection are Ælius Spartianus, Julius Capitolinus, Ælius Lampridius, Vulcatius Gallicanus, Trebellius Pollio, and Flavius Vopiscus of Syracuse. Some editors have included others, as Eutropius and Paulus Diaconus. There is a break in the Augusta Historia in the absence of the lives of Philippus, Decius, and Gallus. The Bipontine

edition is the best.

AUGUSTA, Maria Louisa Catharine, empress of Germany and queen of Prussia, born in Weimar, Sept. 30, 1811. She is the daughter of the grand duke Charles Frederick of SaxeWeimar (died July 8, 1853), and her mother (died June 23, 1859) was a daughter of Paul I., emperor of Russia. She was brought up at the court of her grandfather Charles Augustus, the friend of Goethe, who speaks in one of his letters of the "many-sided and harmonious culture of the princess Augusta." Her elder sister Maria married Prince Charles of Prussia, and she married the prince's brother, the present Emperor William, June 11, 1829. She attended personally to the education of her two children, the present crown prince and the princess Louisa, since 1856 grand duchess of Baden. She is much respected for her love of science, letters, and art, and for her benevolent disposition, displayed especially in 1870-'71 in labors for the relief of the wounded soldiers. In 1872 she founded at Charlottenburg a seminary for the education of orphan daughters of officers who fell in the war, and has designed buildings for the poor in Berlin after the plan of those of Mr. Peabody in London.

AUGUSTAN AGE, the Roman literary epoch which culminated in the reign of Augustus Cæsar. During this period Cicero, Horace, Ovid, Virgil, Catullus, Tibullus, and other writers flourished; also great patrons of literature like Mæcenas. The purest Latinity belongs to the authors of the Augustan age. In English literature it was common in the last century to apply the phrase "Augustan age of English literature" to the times of Addison, Steele, Swift, and Defoe, and the writers during the reign of Queen Anne. The siècle d'Auguste of French literature is the latter years of the reign of Louis XIV. This metaphor has no modern application beyond the literature of France and England.

AUGUSTENBURG, a village on the formerly Danish and now German island of Alsen; pop. about 500. It grew up round the palace of the same name, built in 1651 by Duke Ernst Gunther, and rebuilt in the latter part of the 18th century on a magnificent scale by Friedrich Christian the elder, duke of SchleswigHolstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg, whose son Christian August (born July 9, 1768, died May 28, 1810) was in 1810 adopted by the childless King Charles XIII. of Sweden, and was suc60 VOL. II.-8

ceeded by Bernadotte as crown prince. The male lineage of the ancient royal Holstein-Denmark dynasty became extinct in 1863, and its female lineage has since been known as the Holstein-Sonderburg family, the present king of Denmark belonging to the junior or SchleswigHolstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg branch, and the dukes of Augustenburg to the senior or Schleswig-Holstein - Sonderburg-Augustenburg branch. Prominent among the latter was Christian Karl Friedrich August (born July 19, 1798, died March 11, 1869). His father was the duke Friedrich Christian the younger, and his mother was a daughter of Christian VII. of Denmark. He sold his hereditary estates to Denmark in 1852, and in 1863 relinquished his claims to the succession in the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which were unsuccessfully revived during the Schleswig-Holstein war by his elder son Friedrich Christian August (born July 6, 1829), who has since the annexation of his former possessions to Prussia chiefly resided in Gotha. His eldest son, August, was born in 1858.

AUGUSTI, Johann Christian Wilhelm, a German theologian, born at Eschenberg, in Gotha, about 1772, died in Coblentz in 1841. He studied at Jena, became professor of philosophy and oriental languages in that university, was appointed professor of theology in 1812 at BreslĨau and in 1819 at Bonn, and some years later was placed at the head of the ecclesiastical affairs of the Rhenish province of Prussia as director of the consistory of Coblentz. The most important of his numerous works is the Denkwürdigkeiten aus der christlichen Archäologie (12 vols. 8vo, Leipsic, 1817-'31). As an oriental scholar he was eminent. In doctrine he was an orthodox Lutheran.

AUGUSTIN, or Austin, Saint, archbishop of Canterbury, sometimes called the apostle of the English, born probably in the first half of the 6th century, died at Canterbury between 604 and 614. He was a Benedictine monk in the monastery of St. Andrew at Rome, when he was selected by Pope Gregory I. with other monks to convert the Saxons of England to Christianity. He landed in the dominions of Ethelbert, king of Kent, in 596 or 597, and was hospitably received and allowed to preach to the people, although the king himself firmly refused to forsake the gods of his fathers. The influence of his wife, a Christian princess, aided by the preaching of Augustin, finally prevailed, and Ethelbert was baptized, after which the efforts of the missionaries were crowned with complete success throughout the whole Saxon heptarchy. The ascetic habits of Augustin and his brethren, a reputation for miraculous power in the restoration of sight and even of life, the example of the king, and the fact that the southern races of Europe which had embraced Christianity were far before them in civilization and prosperity, made a deep impression upon the Saxon people, never very devotedly attached to their national religion,

and their conversion seems to have been general; it is said that 10,000 persons were baptized in a single day. Their temples were dedicated to the new faith and used as churches, and many of their rude festivals were converted into religious feasts, without losing their original social character. Augustin, it is said, allowed no coercive measures to be used in propagating the gospel. His success caused him to be appointed by the pope archbishop of Canterbury, with supreme authority over the churches of England. The see of York was soon afterward established, and a number of other bishoprics. Augustin wished to establish conformity of religious customs over the whole of Britain, and for that purpose appointed several conferences with the British bishops of Wales, who were successors of converts of the 2d century, and had declared their independence of the church of Rome. The conferences, however, failed of any result. A number of Welsh monks were soon after put to death, and Augustin has been charged with the deed, but on no very good authority. His relics were preserved in the cathedral at Canterbury.

AUGUSTINE (AURELIUS AUGUSTINUS), Saint, a doctor of the Latin church, born at Tagaste, a small town of Numidia in Africa, not far from Carthage, Nov. 13, 354, died Aug. 28, 430. His father, Patricius, was a pagan nobleman of moderate fortune, while his mother, Monica, who has been canonized by the church, was an earnest Christian. Augustine was sent to the best schools of Madaura and Carthage. His own "Confessions" tell us that his conduct at this period of his life was far from exemplary. His studies, chiefly in the heathen poets, were more favorable to the development of his fancy and his style than to his Christian growth. The death of his father, which threw him upon his own resources, and the influence of some philosophical works, especially the Hortensius of Cicero, roused him to a diligent search after truth. Unable to find this in the writings of the Greek and Roman sages, and dissatisfied with what seemed to him the crude and fragmentary teachings of the Jewish and Christian Scriptures, he adopted the dualism of the Manichæans. At the age of 29 he went to Rome. There his reputation as a teacher of eloquence soon rivalled that of Symmachus, then at the height of his renown. On the recommendation of that orator, he was called to Milan as a teacher of rhetoric. Ambrose was then bishop of Milan, and Augustine's first care was to know so famous a preacher. After repeated interviews with Ambrose, the conversion of his own illegitimate son, and the entreaties of his mother, he resolved to embrace Christianity. The history of his conversion forms the most striking chapter in his "Confessions." After eight months of seclusion, which he spent with his mother and brother and son, preparing for his confirmation in the church, and maturing his plans for the future, Augustine in the Easter week

of 387 was baptized, together with his son and brother, by the hand of Ambrose. He at once set out on his return to Africa. On the way his mother died, and a small chapel among the ruins of Ostia marks the traditional spot of her burial. The death of his son, which took place soon after his return, confirmed his inclination to the monastic life. He retired to Tagaste, and passed nearly three years in studious seclusion, varied only by occasional visits to the neighboring towns. On one of these visits, when he was present at the church in Hippo, a sermon which the bishop Valerius delivered, asking for a priest to assist him in his church, turned all eyes toward this famous scholar. No refusals were allowed, and Augustine was ordained. Preaching was soon added to his duties, an exception being made in his case to the usual rule, and the periods of the African orator, in harsh Latin or the harsher Punic tongue, were received with vehement applause. He was soon called to be assistant bishop, and then, on the death of the elder prelate, the whole charge of the church of Hippo was intrusted to his care. He retained the office until his death, a period of 35 years. The details of his episcopal life are minutely related by his friend Possidius. He preached every day and sometimes twice in the day; was frugal in his domestic arrangements, being a strict ascetic, and requiring of his attendant priests and deacons an equal simplicity of diet and dress; given to hospitality, yet without display; warmly interested in every kind of charity; courteous in his bearing, welcoming even infidels to his table; bold against all wickedness and wrong, whatever the rank of the transgressor; and untiring in his visits to widows and orphans, to the sick and the afflicted. He disputed with Manichæans, Arians, the followers of Priscillian, of Origen, and Tertullian, the Donatists, and the Pelagians, and allowed no doubtful utterance of doctrine to pass without his questioning. To his industry in controversy must be added his vast correspondence with emperors, nobles, doctors, missionaries, bishops, in every quarter of the globe, on questions of dogma, of discipline, and of policy-his solid works of commentary, criticism, morality, philosophy, and theology, and even his poetry, for to him are attributed several of the sweetest hymns of the Catholic anthology. The titles alone of the works of Augustine make a long catalogue. The single volume of "Sermons" contains nearly 700 pieces, shorter indeed and less ornate than the celebrated sermons of Basil and Chrysostom, but justifying Augustine's reputation for sacred oratory. The volume of "Commentaries on the Psalms" is more rich in practical remarks than in accurate learning. His remarks upon the "Four Gospels" are more valuable. His work on the "Care that should be taken for the Dead" contains some striking views concerning the relation of the living to disembodied souls. The volume of his "Epis