3, 1804, died in Paris, Dec. 3, 1857. He founded a hospital in Algiers, in which he taught anatomy and surgery for nine years. He was in most of the African campaigns, and figures in two of Horace Vernet's paintings. In 1841 he became director of the Paris military hospital of instruction, the Val-de-Grâce. During the Crimean war he was a member of the sanitary committee of the army. His principal works are: Nouvelle méthode des amputations (Paris, 1842), and La guerre de Crimée, les campements, les abris, les ambulances, les hôpitaux, &c. (Paris, 1857; 2d ed., 1862; Ger. translation, Kiel, 1864).

BAUDIN, Nicolas, a French sea captain and naturalist, born on the island of Rẻ in 1750, died in the Isle of France, Sept. 16, 1803. He entered the merchant navy at an early age, and in 1786 went on a botanical expedition to the Indies, sailing from Leghorn under the Austrian flag, with a vessel under his own command. His collections in this expedition, and in a second expedition which he made to the West Indies, were presented by him to the government of France, which promoted him to the rank of captain, and sent him in 1800 with two corvettes on a scientific mission to Australia. Péron accompanied him and wrote an account of the voyage (Voyage aux terres australes, Paris, 1807).

kept the rioters in check. In September the French fleet, in conjunction with that of Great Britain, protected Messina against the designs of Filangieri. Baudin was also successful in recovering at Naples and Tunis sums due to French residents. In July, 1849, he withdrew from active service.

He

BAUDRAIS, Jean, a French author, born at Tours, Aug. 14, 1749, died May 4, 1832. began his literary life at Paris by writing L'allégresse villageoise, in honor of the dauphin's marriage, 1781. He was a revolutionist and enemy of Louis XVI., whose last testament he countersigned as witness. He was employed in various magisterial posts during the republic and the consulate, and eventually at the colony of Guadeloupe, whence he was transferred to Cayenne. He refused to take the oath of allegiance to Napoleon, was removed from his office, and emigrated to the United States, where he passed 13 years, living by manual labor. His chief work is his unfinished Essai sur l'origine et les progrès de l'art dramatique en France (3 vols., Paris, 1791).

BAUDRILLART, Henri Joseph Léon, a French political economist, born in Paris, Nov. 28, 1821. He published essays on Voltaire (1844), Turgot (1846), and Madame de Staël (1850), and in 1853 a work on Jean Bodin et son temps, for which the academy awarded him the first MonBAUDIN DES ARDENNES, Charles, a French thyon prize. Since 1855 he has been chief naval officer, born at Sedan, July 21, 1784, editor of the Journal des économistes. He is died in Paris in June, 1854. In 1812, as lieu- also connected with the Journal des Débats, tenant in command of the brig Renard, accom- having married in 1866 the daughter of its panying an expedition of 14 sail with muni- chief editor, M. de Sacy; and he was editor-intions from Genoa to Toulon, he conducted his chief of the Constitutionnel in 1868 and 1869. convoy safely into the harbor of St. Tropez, In 1866 he was appointed professor of the histhough continually pursued by English cruisers; tory of political economy in the collége de but his flag ship was immediately after at- France. He is a writer for the principal cyclotacked by an English brig, which he disabled pædias, for the Revue des Deux-Mondes, and after a desperate conflict. For this service he other periodicals, and is the author of many was made captain of a frigate. After the res- works relating to political economy, moral toration he resigned, and in 1816 entered the science, spiritualism, and the progress of the merchant service, but after the July revolution laboring classes and of trades unions. His reentered the navy. In 1838 he was made Manuel d'économie politique (1857) obtained rear admiral, and commanded an expedition from the French academy the Monthyon prize, of 23 ships against Mexico. Failing to effect and his Des rapports de la morale et de l'écoan amicable settlement with the Mexican gov-nomie politique (1860) received a prize medal. ernment, he bombarded, Nov. 27, 1838, the fortress of San Juan de Ulloa, which surrendered on the following day. On Dec. 5 he made an attack on Vera Cruz, which was repelled by the Mexicans under Santa Anna, who lost a leg in the action; and the French were compelled to reembark and retire from Mexico. Baudin was now promoted to the rank of vice admiral, and in 1840 was sent as military and diplomatic plenipotentiary to the republic of Buenos Ayres, and intrusted with the chief command of the French fleet in the South American waters. He was marine prefect at Toulon from 1841 to 1847. In March, 1848, he was appointed commander of the French fleet in the Mediterranean, and on May 15, when Naples was threatened by the lazzaroni and soldiery, the presence of his fleet

Among his other works are: Études de philosophie morale et d'économie politique (2 vols., 1858); La liberté du travail, l'association et la démocratie (1865); and Éléments d'économie rurale, industrielle et commerciale (1867).

BAUER, Anton, a German jurist, born in Göttingen, Aug. 16, 1772, died there, June 1, 1843. He was a professor in Marburg and in Göttingen, and in 1840 was appointed privy judiciary councillor. His principal works are: Lehrbuch des Naturrechts (Marburg, 1808; 3d ed., Göttingen, 1825); Grundzüge des philosophischen Strafrechts (1825); and Lehrbuch des Strafprocesses, a revised edition of a previous work (Göttingen, 1835; 2d ed., 1848).

BAUER, Bernard, abbé, a French priest, born in Pesth, Hungary, in 1829. He was a member of a wealthy Jewish family, left his studies to

enlist in the French army in 1848, and after an adventurous life became a convert to the Roman Catholic church and joined the Carmelite order. His eloquence acquired for him a great reputation in Germany and France; and he became honorary canon, apostolical prothonotary, and chaplain at the Tuileries. He was a special favorite of the empress Eugénie, whom he accompanied to Egypt at the opening of the Suez canal. During the siege of Paris he figured as chaplain of the ambulances of the press, having under his orders 800 frères chrétiens, dressed as priests, though not in holy orders. He often showed himself on horse-¦ back, dressed in a soutane and long boots, with the grand cross of the legion of honor on his breast, and an episcopal ring on his finger. He has published Le Judaïsme comme preuve du Christianisme, a series of lectures which he had delivered in 1866 in Vienna and Paris; Napoléon III. et l'Europe en 1867, a political pamphlet (Paris, 1867); and Le but de la vie, a collection of his sermons preached at the Tuileries (1869).

the history of the French revolution, on German history since the French revolution, and on the causes of the futility of the revolution of 1848-'9, though still democratic in spirit, were partly directed against the utopian tendencies of the revolutionary party. In his later writings (on the "Dictatorship of the Western Powers, 1855, on the "Position of Russia," 1855, &c.) he evinced a more and more decided leaning toward political conservatism, of which he has ultimately become a champion. II. Edgar, brother of the preceding, born at Charlottenburg in 1821. His pamphlet in defence of his brother Bruno (1842) was confis cated, and his Censurinstruction, written during the preparation of the trial, was also seized, but published in Bern in 1844. On account of his work Der Streit der Kritik mit Kirche und Staat, he was condemned in 1843 to imprisonment in the fortress of Magdeburg for four years. He was a co-worker with his brother in some of his publications, and prepared while in prison Die Geschichte der constitutionellen Bewegung im südlichen Deutschland während der Jahre 1831-34 (3 vols., Charlottenburg, 1845-'6), and Geschichte des Lutherthums, in the Bibliothek der deutschen Aufklärer (5 vols., Leipsic, 1845-'7). After his release in 1848 he published a political review called Die Parteien (Hamburg, 1849), and Ueber die Ehe im Sinne des Lutherthums (Leipsic, 1849); and in 1857 appeared in Leipsic his Englische Freiheit.

BAUER. I. Bruno, a German critic and theologian, born at Eisenberg, Sept. 6, 1809. Educated in Berlin, he became in 1834 a teacher at the university there. He was then a Hegelian philosopher of the old school. In 1835 he severely criticised Strauss's "Life of Jesus," proposing to reconcile the free action of reason with the Christian revelation, which, in common with Hegel, he regarded as a gradual selfrevelation of human reason. This position he BAUER, Georg Lorenz, a German theologian, abandoned in 1839. In that year he was trans- born at Hilpoltstein, Aug. 14, 1755, died in ferred to Bonn, but in 1842, on account of the Heidelberg, Jan. 12, 1806. He studied theology rationalistic boldness displayed in his writings in Altdorf, and was minister and professor of and lectures, was deprived of permission to theology in Nuremberg, Altdorf, and Heidelgive public instruction. He then returned to berg. He introduced into theology the prinBerlin and devoted himself entirely to historical ciple that the Bible, like the works of the old and critical publications. In these writings he classics, must be interpreted by grammatical asserts that the gospels, as well as the Acts of and historical considerations, and not with the Apostles and the principal epistles of Paul, reference to theological doctrines. He was are fictions, written during the 2d century with among the first to elucidate the dogmatic a view to account for the rapid spread of Chris- opinions of the different Biblical writers, and tianity at a time when the original history of to show the differences between them. its establishment had already fallen into ob- also shows the differences between the opinions scurity; that religion should be abolished, and of the Biblical writers on the one hand and the that science and ethics of human reason should creed of the Lutheran church on the other, and be substituted; and that all attempts at apolo- was the first to write a systematic exposition gizing for the scientific deficiencies of Christian- of the Christian dogmas as they are contained ity and revealed religion in general are futile. in the Bible, and in each Biblical book in parHis principal works are: Kritik der evangeli- ticular. Among his writings are: Hermeneuschen Geschichte des Johannes (Bremen, 1840); | tica sacra V. T. (Leipsic, 1797); Biblische TheKritik der evangelischen Geschichte der Synop-ologie des Neuen Testaments (Leipsic, 1800-22); tiker (2d ed., 3 vols., Leipsic, 1841-2); Kritik der Evangelien (2 vols., Berlin, 1850-'51); Die Apostelgeschichte (1850); and Kritik der Paulinischen Briefe (1850). Of his minor works are to be mentioned Die Judenfrage (Brunswick, 1843), in which he protested against the emancipation of the Jews, who according to his views were first to emancipate themselves by abandoning their clannishness, religion, and trading in money. His Allgemeine Literaturzeitung (Charlottenburg, 1843-24), his works on

He

Hebräische Mythologie des Alten und Neuen
Testaments (Leipsic, 1802-23). Bauer was a
distinguished orientalist, and translated the
Arabian history of Abulfaraj.

BAUGE, a French town, department of Maine. et-Loire, 23 m. E. N. E. of Angers; pop. in 1866, 3,562. This town is celebrated in history for a battle fought between the English and the French in 1421, in which the former were totally defeated and their leader, the duke of Clarence, was killed. Near this town, at Baugé-le-Viel,

ogy at Jena. His writings on the history of
Christian dogmas made him prominent.
was in many respects a follower of Schleier-
macher, and published in 1834 Ueber Schleier-
macher, seine Denkart, und sein Verdienst.
BAUMGARTNER, Andreas von, baron, an Aus-
trian statesman and savant, born at Friedberg,
Bohemia, Nov. 23, 1793, died at Hietzing, near
Vienna, July 28, 1865. He studied mathemat-
ics, and in 1817 became professor of physical
science at Olmütz, and in 1823 in the university
of Vienna. Ill health compelling him to re-
frain from teaching, he subsequently superin-
tended various manufactories controlled by the
government, and after 1846 he directed the
construction of telegraphs and railways. He
was minister of commerce and public works
and of finance from 1851 to 1855, and in 1861
became a member of the house of peers. He
popularized science in relation to art and in-
dustry, and his lectures were collected in a
volume entitled Mechanik in ihrer Anwendung
auf Künste und Gewerbe (2d ed., Vienna,
1823). His Naturlehre (1823; 8th ed., 1844–5)
and his contributions to periodicals diffused
much knowledge of natural science; and his
Chemie und Geschichte der Himmelskörper
nach der Spectralanalyse (1862), and Die me-
chanische Theorie der Wärme (1864), contain
his academical lectures on chemistry.-See
Schrötter, Freiherr von Baumgartner, eine
Lebensskizze (Vienna, 1866).

| 21, 1792, died in Tübingen, Dec. 2, 1860. He He was educated at Tübingen, became a clergyman and afterward a private tutor, and in 1817 was appointed professor at the seminary of Blaubeuern. He was at that period a follower of Neander and Schleiermacher, and published Symbolik und Mythologie, oder die Naturreligion des Alterthums (3 vols., Stuttgart, 1824-5), which won for him in 1826 the chair of evangelical theology in the university of Tübingen, which he occupied during the rest of his life. He became the founder of the new Tübingen school of theology (see his letter to Hase of Jena, 1855, and his Die Tübinger Schule, 1859), which further developed his system of applying critical tests to the canonical writings. He denied the authenticity of the Gospel of St. John, and all the Pauline epistles except those to the Galatians, Corinthians, and Romans. He drew many inferences from Hegel without altogether identifying himself with the Hegelian system of philosophy, and was charged by his adversaries with having converted Hegelianism into pantheism, and positive Christian faith into Gnostic idealism, and with the subversion of the fundamental doctrines of orthodox Christianity. His followers, however, regard him as the greatest master mind in theology since the death of Schleiermacher. His works relating to the New Testament include Die Christuspartei in der korinthischen Gemeinde, der Gegensatz des paulinischen und petrinischen Christenthums (in the Tübingen Zeitschrift für Theologie, 1835); Die sogenannten Pastoralbriefe des Apostels Paulus (Stuttgart, 1835; 2d ed., 1866-7); and Paulus, der Apostel Jesu Christi, sein Leben und Wirken, seine Briefe und seine Lehre (1845). The last named work contains the general result of all his investigations relating to St. Paul, and his Kritische Untersuchungen über die kanonischen Evangelien, ihr Verhältniss zu einander, ihren Ursprung und Charakter (Tübingen, 1847), gives his researches relating to St. John, St. Luke (which two had been previously publishBAUMGÄRTNER, Karl Heinrich, a German phys- ed in 1844 and 1846 respectively), St. Mark, iologist, born at Pforzheim, Baden, Oct. 21, and St. Matthew. His works on dogma, based 1798. He is a graduate of Heidelberg, and was on historical treatment, comprise Das Maniprofessor of clinics there from 1824 to 1862, chäische Religionssystem (1831); Die christwhen he published Vermächtnisse eines Klini-liche Gnosis, oder die christliche Religionsphilokers. He acquired renown by his observations on the development of animals, and by his investigations on the circulation of the blood. His medical works included Handbuch der speciellen Krankheits- und Heilungslehre (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1835; 4th ed., 1842), and Grundzüge zur Physiologie und zur allgemeinen Krankheits- und Heilungslehre (1837; 3d ed., 1854). These two works constitute his Dualistisches System der Medecin. Among his physiological publications are Die Embryonalanlage durch Keimspaltungen (1854), Anfänge zu einer physiologischen Schöpfungsgeschichte (1855), and Schöpfungsgedanken (Freiburg, 1856–'9).

BAUMGARTNER, Gallus Jakob, a Swiss politician and historian, born at Altstätten, Oct. 18, 1797, died in St. Gall in July, 1869. He was the son of a mechanic, studied law, and became prominent as a leader of the liberal party in St. Gall till about 1841, when his alliance with the ultramontanes diminished his popularity, though his eloquence and executive ability led to his being chosen in 1843, and again in 1857-'60, as a member of various legislative bodies. He wrote Die Schweiz in ihren Kämpfen und Umgestaltungen von 1830 bis 1850 (4 vols., Zürich, 1853-'66).

sophie (1835), from the 2d to the 19th century; Die christliche Lehre von der Versöhnung (1838); Die christliche Lehre von der Dreieinigkeit und Menschwerdung Gottes (3 vols., 1841-3); and Lehrbuch der christlichen Dogmengeschichte (Stuttgart, 1847; 3d ed., 1867). Against the symbolism of Möhler he published Erwiderung gegen Möhler's neueste Polemik (1834), Gegensatz des Katholicismus und Protestantismus (2d ed., 1836), and other writings. Among his last and most extensive historico-ecclesiastical productions are Epochen der kirchlichen Geschichtschreibung (1852), and a history of the Christian church to the BAUR, Ferdinand Christian, a German theolo- 19th century (5 vols., 1853–263), the last two gian, born at Schmiden, Würtemberg, June | volumes of which, left nearly completed, were

edited by his son, Professor Ferdinand Fried-witz, the key to Blücher's position. The allied rich Baur, and by E. Zeller. Other posthu- monarchs, being now reminded of their danger mous works edited by his son are Vorlesun- of being crushed by Ney, who had already atgen über neutestamentliche Theologie (Leipsic, tacked the right flank of their forces, effected 1864), and Vorlesungen über die christliche a masterly retreat without losing a gun. Dogmengeschichte (1865 et seq.). BAUXITE. See ALUMINA.