into 30 districts. Among the more important centuries extended from the lake of Geneva to the Rhine. During this period its government from being democratic became aristocratic and oligarchical. The armies of the French republic invaded the canton in 1798, took the city of Bern, and seized its treasury, containing 30,000,000 francs. In 1803, by Napoleon's act of mediation, Aargau and Vaud were separated from Bern. In 1815, to compensate for the loss of Aargau and Vaud, the territories of the bishop of Basel were taken from France and added to Bern, and an aristocratic tone was given to the institutions of this "Venice of the Alps," as the canton has sometimes been called. In 1831 a more democratic constitution was adopted, and still another in 1846. Under this the government is vested in a grand council, which delegates its power to a smaller body called the council of administration. The chief judicial power is given to a supreme court | east is one of the most gigantic structures of of 15 members with 4 substitutes. Under the constitution of Switzerland which was promulgated Sept. 12, 1848, the canton sends 23 members to the Nationalrath or lower house of the Swiss diet. In 1870 the referendum was introduced, which provides that every law adopted by the legislature must be ratified by the people before it can become valid. The revenue and expenditure of the canton in 1870 amounted to about 5,200,000 fr.; public debt, 20,000,000 fr. II. A city, capital of the canton and of Switzerland, situated upon a promontory of sandstone around which flows the Aar with steep and precipitous banks, 43 m. S. of Basel; pop. in 1870, 36,002, of whom 2,644 were Roman Catholics, 303 Jews, and the remainder Protestants. The lofty Nydeck bridge by which it may be entered from the Switzerland. The city is handsomely built, with broad straight streets, many of the houses resting upon arcades. By means of the Gasel, a brook introduced into the city in 1868, fountains are supplied and rills made to flow through many of the streets. The capitol of the confederation was completed here in 1857, and cost 2,145,471 fr. The high clock tower, built by Berchtold of Zähringen in 1191, is near the middle of the city. Every hour its works set in motion puppets which represent a cock, a procession of bears, and a bearded old man with an hour glass, who strikes a bell. The cathedral faces a terrace 108 feet above the Aar, from which a fine view may be had of the Oberland Alps. It was begun in 1421 under the supervision of Matthias Heinz, son of one of the architects of Strasburg cathedral, to which it is equal in some of its details. The other | brated at Vienna, April 13, 1798. His hotel most noted buildings are the churches, the was stormed by a mob, his flag burnt, and his library and museum, the mint, the orphan asy- life endangered. Satisfaction having been relum, the hospital, the arsenal, the university fused, Bernadotte withdrew to Rastadt with all buildings, &c. The university was founded in his legation. The directory, however, on the 1834, and in 1871 had 73 professors and 319 advice of Bonaparte, waived the claim for satstudents. A school of arts was founded in isfaction and recalled Bernadotte to Paris. He 1871. The manufactures are cloth, printed married in August, 1798, Mlle. Désirée Clary, linen, silk and cotton fabrics, and straw hats. the daughter of a Marseilles merchant and JoThe corporation of the city is so rich that it seph Bonaparte's sister-in-law. In November furnishes the citizens with fuel gratis, and has of the same year he was made commander of a surplus. The scenery is of the most pictu- the army of observation on the upper Rhine. resque character, and the city is much fre- After the coup d'état of the 30th Prairial, 1799, quented by strangers. The wall ditches are he was made minister of war, and in that renowned for bears, the bear being the heral-office rendered valuable services. On the morndic animal of Bern, which derives its name from it. The armory, the richest in Switzerland, is full of ancient weapons and curiosities. BERNADOTTE, Jean Baptiste Jules, marshal of the French empire and king of Sweden and Norway, born at Pau, Jan. 26, 1764, died in Stockholm, March 8, 1844. He was the son of a lawyer, and was educated for that profession, but enlisted in 1780 in the royal marines. When the French revolution broke out his advancement became rapid. In 1792 he served as colonel in Custine's army; commanded a demi-brigade in 1793; was in the same year, through Kléber's patronage, promoted to the rank of brigadier general; and contributed, as general of division in the army of the Sambre and Meuse, under Kléber and Jourdan, to the victory of Fleurus, June 26, 1794, the success at Jülich, and the capitulation of Maestricht. He also did good service in the campaign of 1795-'6 against the Austrian generals Clairfait, Kray, and the archduke Charles. At the beginning of 1797 he was ordered by the directory to march with 20,000 men as reenforcements to the Italian army, and it was upon his arrival in Italy that his first interview with Bonaparte took place. During the invasion of Friuli and Istria Bernadotte distinguished himself at the passage of the Tagliamento, where he led the vanguard, and at the capture of the fortress of Gradisca, March 19, 1797. After the 18th Fructidor, Bonaparte ordered his generals to collect from their respective divisions addresses in favor of the coup d'état of that day; but Bernadotte sent an address to the directory different from that which Bonaparte wished for and without conveying it through Bonaparte's hands. After the treaty of Campo Formio Bonaparte made Bernadotte a friendly visit at his headquarters at Udine, but immediately after deprived him of half his division of the army of the Rhine, and commanded him to march the other half back to France. Bernadotte was much dissatisfied, but finally accepted the embassy to Vienna. Having been reprimanded by the directory because he had not placed the emblem of the republic upon the outside of his hotel, Bernadotte hoisted the tri-colored flag with the inscription "Liberty, equality, fraternity." This was done upon a day on which a public anniversary was cele- | ing of Sept. 13 he found his resignation announced in the Moniteur before he was aware that he had tendered it. This was a trick played upon him by Sieyes and Roger Ducos, the directors allied to Bonaparte. Although solicited to do so by Bonaparte, Bernadotte refused to take part in the revolution of the 18th Brumaire (Nov. 9, 1799), by which the directory was abolished and supreme power conferred on Napoleon. Placed in command of the army of the west, he restored tranquillity to La Vendée. After the proclamation of the empire in 1804 he was made a marshal, and was intrusted with the command of the army of Hanover. In this capacity, as well as during his later command of the army of northern Germany, he created for himself a reputation for independence, moderation, and administrative ability. At the head of the corps stationed in Hanover, which formed the first corps of the grand army, he participated in the campaign of 1805 against the Austrians and Russians. In the battle of Austerlitz he was posted with his corps in the centre between Soult and Lannes, and contributed to baffle the attempt of the right wing of the allies to outflank the French army. On June 5, 1806, he was created prince of Ponte-Corvo, a district of Naples formerly subject to the pope. During the campaign of 1806-'7 against Prussia he commanded the first corps d'armée. After the battle of Jena, Oct. 14, 1806, Bernadotte defeated the Prussians at Halle, Oct. 17, pursued conjointly with Soult and Murat the Prussian general Blücher to Lübeck, and aided in forcing his capitulation at Radkow, Nov. 7. He also defeated the Russians at Mohrungen, Jan. 25, 1807. After the peace of Tilsit, according to the alliance concluded between Denmark and Napoleon, French troops were to occupy the Danish islands, thence to act against Sweden. Accordingly, in 1808, while Russia invaded Finland, Bernadotte was commanded to move upon Seeland in order to penetrate with the Danes into Sweden to dethrone its king, and to partition the country between Denmark and Russia. He passed the Belt and arrived in Seeland at the head of 30,000 Frenchmen, Dutch, and Spaniards; most of the latter, however, by the assistance of the English fleet, decamped under Gen. de la Ro maña. Being recalled to Germany to assist in | the new war between France and Austria, he received the command of the 9th corps, which was mainly composed of Saxons. At the battle of Wagram he commanded this corps, of which the division of Gen. Dupas formed part. Having resisted on the left wing for a long time an attack from a superior force, he ordered Dupas forward to his support; the latter replied that he had orders from the emperor to remain where he was. After the battle Bernadotte complained to Napoleon for having in violation of all military rules ordered Gen. Dupas to act independently of his command, and for having thereby caused great loss of life to the Saxons, and tendered his resignation; and Napoleon accepted it after he had become aware of an order of the day issued by Bernadotte in which he gave the Saxons credit for their courage in terms inconsistent with the emperor's official bulletin. Bernadotte having returned to Paris, the Walcheren expedition (July, 1809), caused the French ministry in the absence of the emperor to intrust him with the defence of Antwerp. In a proclamation issued to his troops at Antwerp he made a charge against Napoleon of having neglected to prepare the proper means of defence for the Belgian coast. He was deprived of his command, and ordered on his return to Paris to leave it for his princedom of Ponte-Corvo. Refusing to comply with the order, he was summoned to Vienna, and after an interview with Napoleon at Schönbrunn accepted the general government of the Roman states. He was making his preparations to enter upon this office when the Swedish diet elected him crown prince of Sweden, Aug. 21, 1810. The king, Charles XIII., who in 1809 had succeeded the dethroned Gustavus IV., adopted him as his son under the name of Charles John. Before freeing Bernadotte from his allegiance to France, Napoleon asked him to agree never to take up arms against France. Bernadotte having refused to make any such agreement, upon the ground that his obligations to Sweden would not allow it, Napoleon signed the act of emancipation unconditionally. Landing at Helsingborg, Bernadotte there abjured the Catholic religion, and entered Stockholm Nov. 1. During the king's sickness, in the following year, Bernadotte acted as regent. Napoleon compelled him to accede to the continental system and declare war against England; but the declaration was treated by both England and Sweden as being merely nominal. Napoleon_suppressed the crown prince's revenues as a French prince, declined to receive his despatches, and sent back the order of the Seraphim bestowed by him upon the new-born king of Rome. Finally French troops in January, 1812, invaded Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rügen; whereupon Sweden concluded an offensive alliance against France with Russia. In this treaty the annexation of Norway to Sweden was stipulated. When Napoleon declared war against Russia, Bernadotte was for a time the arbiter of the destinies of Europe. Napoleon offered him, on the condition of his attacking Russia with 40,000 Swedes, Finland, Mecklenburg, Stettin, and all the territory between Stettin and Volgast. But Bernadotte remained upon the side of Russia. He mediated the peace of Orebro, concluded about the same time between England on the one side and Russia and Sweden on the other. After the French retreat from Moscow, when England guaranteed him Norway, he entered the coalition. He assisted the emperor Alexander and the king of Prussia in the formation of their plans for the campaign of 1813, in which as crown prince of Sweden he was commander-in-chief of the army of the north. In this campaign, after having defeated Oudinot at Grossbeeren, he gained a victory (Sept. 6) over Ney at Dennewitz, and joined in the battle of Leipsic in time to contribute materially to the victory of the allies. After that battle he marched upon Denmark by way of Hanover; and he forced Frederick VI. to sign the treaty of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814, by which Norway was ceded to Sweden. When the allies entered France the crown prince followed slowly, and stopped on the frontier. After Napoleon's abdication he repaired personally to Paris, where his reception by the allies was not particularly cordial; but on his return to Sweden the treaty of Kiel was guaranteed by the five great powers. The representatives of Norway, assembling at Eidwold, adopted the constitution which is still in force. This constitution Bernadotte agreed to accept, and obtained the assent to it of the Swedish assembly (storthing). Charles XIII. expired Feb. 5, 1818, and Bernadotte was acknowledged throughout Europe as king both of Sweden and Norway under the name of Charles XIV. John. Although ignorant of the language of the countries over which he reigned, Bernadotte as king succeeded in overcoming all the difficulties which arose in either country. During his long reign of 26 years education was promoted, agriculture, commerce, and manufactures prospered, and the means of internal communication were increased. (See SWEDEN.) He was succeeded by his only son, Oscar. BERNALILLO, an E. central county of New Mexico, divided into two portions by the S. projection of San Miguel county, the E. portion bordering on Texas; area, about 3,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 7,591. The W. portion is intersected by the Rio Grande del Norte and Rio Puerco, and is skirted by the Rio de San José. In this portion are the Sandia and other mountains. The chief productions in 1870 were 18,300 bushels of wheat, 31,505 of Indian corn, 14,080 gallons of wine, and 166,960 lbs. of wool. There were 373 horses, 509 mules and asses, 622 milch cows, 2,016 other cattle, 126,010 sheep, and 446 swine. Capital, Albuquerque. BERNARD, a saint and doctor of the Latin church, born at Fontaines, in Burgundy, in 1091, died in the abbey of Clairvaux, Aug. 20, 1153. His father, Tescelin, was a knight of the house of Châtillon, and his mother, Aleth, was a daughter of Count Bernard of Montbard. Bernard was the third of a family of seven children. From the beginning he was destined to a clerical life, and he astonished his masters by his rapid progress in learning. After the death of his mother, when he was 19 years old, he resolved to enter the cloister, and to persuade his brothers to join him. Andrew and Bartholomew, younger brothers, were easily won. Guy, the eldest, was for a time retained by his wife, but she at last consented to go to a nunnery. A rich and warlike uncle was the next proselyte. Gérard, the second brother, was more insensible, but his obstinacy was disarmed by a vision. The rule chosen by the brethren was the new Cistercian rule. Bernard's discipline was rigorous in the extreme, His labors were severe, his fastings protracted; his sensibilities were blunted by various exposure, till he lost almost all sense of outward impressions. His meagre and haggard frame was a fearful witness of the struggles of the soul in its contest with the body. His novitiate year brought numerous converts, including Nivard, Bernard's youngest brother. The year of novitiate was passed by the brethren in the convent of Cîteaux. In this time several new convents had been founded in the neighborhood. In 1115 Bernard, with 12 monks, among whom were his brothers, was sent out to find in the province of Champagne a suitable place for a Cistercian community. He chose a wild gorge in the diocese of Langres, noted as a haunt of robbers, the name of which was the "Valley of Wormwood." He changed the name to Clairvaux, or "Beautiful Valley." The numbers of the brotherhood rapidly multiplied. Their charities were the praise of all the region. Men came to Clairvaux to be healed of their infirmities by one whom sickness had reduced almost to spiritual proportions. Compelled by superior authority to submit himself to a physician, Bernard, against his will, recovered. Henceforth, recognizing his own weakness of body, he was less enthusiastic in his austerities. The 12 succeeding years of his life were devoted to the reform and direction of the convents already established, or suggestions concerning new establishments. His correspondence was vast, and he gave audience to great numbers who came to consult him. His studies were not less vigorously prosecuted, both in Scriptural and patristic lore. Augustine's theology and the Canticles of Solomon were his favorite themes. In 1124 Humbeline, his only sister, and the last of his family, took the veil in one of the convents of his foundation. Bernard was repeatedly called abroad to reconcile disputes between bishops and their dioceses, between the church and the nobles. He persuaded Abbot Suger, prime minister of Louis the Fat, to relinquish his secular station and confine himself at St. Denis to his religious charge. He supported Henry, archbishop of Sens, and Stephen of Paris, in their appeal to Rome against the king. At the council of Troyes, in 1128, he vindicated the canons of the church, and took part in those stormy debates about the excesses of the Templar knights. At the council of Châlons, 1129, he assisted to depose the bishop of Verdun. Repeated offers of lucrative sees were steadily refused by him. In 1130 a schism was caused by the pretensions of the cardinal of Leon, who claimed the papacy, under the title of Anacletus, in opposition to Innocent II. At the council of Etampes Bernard gave his support to Innocent, procured a decree in favor of the exile, and then visited the principal courts of Europe to plead Innocent's cause. He secured the countenance of England, accompanied Innocent to Germany, and with some difficulty induced the emperor Lothaire not only to acknowledge him as pope, but to renounce the privilege of investiture. In 1132 Bernard accompanied Innocent into Italy. The division between its various states tended to hinder the restoration of Catholic unity. Genoa, whose jealousy of Pisa was obstinate and deep-rooted, was subdued by the preaching of the abbot, until the people almost forced him to stay as their chief bishop. Pisa in turn yielded to his eloquence. In Milan he found a harder task; but here, too, he succeeded, and the Milanese also demanded him for their bishop. Returning after five years of conflict to Clairvaux, he found its affairs peaceful and prosperous. Count William of Aquitaine, the most violent of the adherents of Anacletus, kindled a fresh schism and deposed bishops who supported Innocent. Failing in his argument with this man, Bernard tried an experiment, such as Ambrose had tried with Theodosius. After the consecration at mass, he went toward the count with the wafer and paten in his hands, and threatened him with the judgment of the Lord unless he desisted from the persecution of the church. The count fell prostrate and penitent at his feet, and two years later died on a pilgrimage. In 1137 Bernard was summoned from his convent to plead the cause of Innocent before King Roger of Sicily, who had possessed himself of Rome. The necessity of unity in the church, and the right of majorities to decide disputed questions, were arguments which Roger and his partisans could not well resist. The death of Anacletus weakened the schism still further; and, although the form of electing his successor was tried, the party were forced to confess themselves vanquished, and the abbot received the testimonies of their final submission. Innocent was installed at Rome, and Bernard was able to see the fruit of his eight years of toil and contest. A visit to the convent of the Paraclete, of which Héloïse was abbess, had acquainted Bernard with the views and principles of Abélard. Through Bernard's influence, in the year 1140, a council was held at Sens to consider those opinions. From a conviction that his cause was hopeless, or from fear as some say, Abélard did not justify himself before the council, and his default was pronounced, with his sentence as a heretic. His death, during the journey which he was making to Rome, saved his adversary from the annoyance of further controversy. In this and subsequent years Bernard's life was embittered by misunderstandings with the pope, who preferred the good will of the secular .powers to the friendship of the monk who had placed him on the papal throne. His influence at Rome, however, was soon regained. After the short reigns of Celestine II. and Lucius II., one of his own spiritual children, another Bernard of Clairvaux, was called to the chair of St. Peter as Eugenius III. The new pope soon intrusted to Bernard the duty of preaching a fresh crusade. Bernard passed through France and Germany, arousing indifference, inflaming piety, opening the coffers of the rich, and calling all to the holy war. His success was instant and wonderful. More than once his robe was torn to shreds in furnishing crosses to the eager volunteers. He writes to Eugenius that the cities and castles are deserted, that the wives are becoming widows, and that there is hardly one man to seven women. Soon he had to moderate the excitement and check the excesses of the host which he had gathered. He strove especially to prevent the persecution of the Jews, which was the first sign of the new Christian fury. In 1147 the two great expeditions set out. Confusion marked their way, and disaster followed them. The Greek emperor suffered the German forces to be cut to pieces by the Moslems. The French expedition was equally unfortunate, and, though a fragment reached Syria and laid siege to Damascus, the climate and vices of that region finished the destruction which the fortunes of war had begun. The weight of the blame was thrown upon the advisers of the expedition, and Bernard, who had protested against the blunders of the campaign, was cursed for its fatal result. Ilis fame, however tarnished by this disaster abroad, was retrieved by his successful warfare with new heresy at home. He cleansed Languedoc from the scandal which Henry of Lausanne and Peter de Bruis, the Cathari or Purist leaders, had brought upon that province. At the council of Rheims, in 1148, he refuted the Sabellian bishop, Gilbert of Poitiers. It was proposed to engage him in a new crusade, but he refused. His last five years were passed in comparative retirement, varied only by literary occupations and the visits of distinguished friends. Gumard, king of Sardinia, and Pope Eugenius, were at different times his guests. The "burning and shining light of the Irish church," Malachi, saint and bishop, died on a visit to Clairvaux, and Bernard wrote his life. The abbess Hildegard found in Bernard a friend who vindicated her at Rome, and believed that her gift of prophecy was real. In these last years the most remarkable of Bernard's compositions were written. His body was buried in the church at Clairvaux, and in 1165 his name was set in the calendar of the church by Pope Alexander, though it was not openly proclaimed among the saints till 1174. Bernard founded 35 monasteries in France, 11 in Spain, 10 in England and Ireland, 6 in Flanders, 4 in Italy, 2 in Germany, 2 in Sweden, 1 in Hungary, and 1 in Denmark. At Clairvaux at the time of his death there were 700 brethren. His treatises, authoritative as they still are, have been superseded by the works of Aquinas and Bellarmin, and his sermons do not justify his singular fame for pulpit eloquence. It needs nice discrimination to separate his genuine writings from those which have been falsely attributed to him. The former comprise epistles, sermons, and moral and theological treatises. Of the epistles 480 are contained in the collections of Mabillon and Martène, 439 of which were the work of Bernard himself, the remainder being either addressed to him or drawn up by his secretary. The general characteristics of his letters are earnestness, energy, clearness of expression, and a fierce sincerity. The style is unequal, in most instances rugged and harsh. The sermons include 86 on the Canticles of Solomon, 86 on the events of the ecclesiastical year, 43 on the saints and the Virgin, and 125 miscellaneous. They are cold, ethical, sometimes even obscure. The other works of St. Bernard include treatises on "The Love of God; ""Grace and Free Will;" "Twelve Degrees of Humility and Pride; baptism and the incarnation, in a letter to Hugo of St. Victor; "Conversion," addressed to the clergy; an "Apology" for his order, in reply to the censure of certain Benedictines; "Exhortations to the Knights Templar; " "Errors of Abélard; Precepts and Dispensations;" and a work on "Consideration," suggested by the visit of Pope Eugenius to his monastery, and dedicated to that pontiff. The standard edition of his writings is that of Mabillon (2 vols. fol., 1690). This contains valuable notes, in addition to the edition of 1667. A new edition appeared in 1719 and in 1726. Another less valuable but more convenient edition, by the same famous Benedictine, is in 9 vols. 8vo. The most accessible biographies are those of Neander (Berlin, 1841), Montalembert, Daunon in vol. xiii. of "French Literary History," Abel Desjardins (Dijon, 1845), the abbé Ratisbonne (2 vols., Paris, 1846), and J. C. Morison (London, 1863). 99.66 BERNARD, Claude, a French physiologist, born at Saint Julien, department of the Rhône, July 12, 1813, died Feb. 10, 1878. He studied in Paris, and became in 1854 incumbent of the newly established chair of general physiology in the faculty of sciences, and member of the academy, in 1855 professor of experimental physiology at the collége de France, and in 1868 of general physiology at the museum. He established his reputation by his Recherches sur les usages du pancréas, to which the academy awarded a prize in 1849, and which was published |