fought at Calandria, near Athens, by the Athenian Turks and Greeks, under the waywode, named Chasekes, against these barbarians, commanded by the deli pasha, and a decisive victory gained. In 1778 Chasekes fortified Athens with a wall, using materials taken from many of the ancient structures. The conduct of Chasekes gained him so much popularity, that his reappointment was solicited and obtained of the Porte, and finally he was appointed waywode for life. Having secured his end, he threw off the mask, and showed himself to be a tyrant. The tide of popular feeling turned against him, and he was banished; but by intrigue and bribery he was again restored. The contest continued 22 years, during which the game was repeated five times; and finally, in 1795, he was beheaded in Cos, the place of his exile. In this period the prosperity of Athens declined. Her population and wealth greatly diminished. A pestilence ravaged the city in 1789 and again in 1792; about 1,200 perished in the former, and 1,000 in the latter. In the movement toward a revival of Greek independence, which distinguished the close of the last century and the beginning of the present, Athens played a prominent part. New schools were established, and the whole influence of all her educational institutions was on the side of Greek freedom. The actual war of independence commenced in 1821. The fortunes of Athens were variously affected during the seven years of its continuance. The Turkish garrison was besieged in the Acropolis April 28, but after many tragical scenes was relieved July 20, and the Greek troops were compelled to retreat by the Turks under Omer Pasha, Briones, and Omer Bey. Many of the inhabitants were slain, and the city was plundered and burned. Many of the Athenians fled to Salamis and Ægina, and some of them joined the troops concentrating at the isthmus of Corinth. In September, 1821, Omer Pasha retired from Athens with the greater part of his forces, and his lieutenant soon afterward with the remainder. The Acropolis was again left in the hands of the resident Turks, and the Athenians, returning from their places of refuge, besieged them, and compelled them to surrender, June 21, 1822, 1,160 prisoners being taken. Before these could be conveyed to a place of safety, a rumor of a new invasion spread through the city, and caused the Athenians such alarm that they fell upon the Turks and put to death about 400, in violation of the terms of the surrender. During the next two years violent dissensions between the Greek leaders delayed the progress of the war; but in spite of the treachery of Odysseus, a leading general, who joined the enemy and made hostile movements against Athens, the body of the troops and citizens faithfully supported Guras, the commander of the city, and finally gained a decisive victory, capturing Odysseus, who was put to death. Early in 1826 the Turkish forces, un der Kiutahi Pasha and Omer Pasha, overran Attica. Numerous conflicts occurred in the neighborhood of Athens. On Aug. 15 the Turks forced their way into the city, and the Greeks retired into the Acropolis, where they were long besieged, suffering great hardships. Guras was killed in an outwork. During the siege the Greek forces outside the city, under the command of the English Lord Cochrane, Gen. Church, and others, strove to relieve the garrison. In May a bloody and decisive battle was fought, and the Greeks were entirely defeated. Cochrane and Church were compelled to seek refuge on board their ships, and the posts in the neighborhood of Piraus were abandoned. The citadel was compelled to surrender June 5. More than 2,000 men and 500 women were marched down from the Acropolis, and transported to Salamis, Ægina, and Poros. Thus, after a siege of 11 months, Athens was again placed under Turkish domination. The city remained in the possession of the Turks till 1832, when the intervention of the great powers had secured independence to the Greeks under a republican form of government, with President Capo d'Istria at its head. During these last years almost all the modern buildings of the city had been demolished. Scarcely a private dwelling was uninjured, and the remains of antiquity shared in the general calamity. The city recovered slowly, and had little prosperity until subsequent events drew back to it some part of its former population. Capo d'Istria was assassinated in 1831. August, 1832, Otho, the second son of the king of Bavaria, who had been selected by the great powers, England, France, and Russia, was proclaimed king at Nauplia. He arrived at the end of January, 1833. The king, only 17 years old when he was chosen, attained his majority, which was fixed at 20, in 1835. In that year the seat of government was transferred from Nauplia to Athens, and from this date recommences the history of Athens as a new centre of civilization in that quarter of the world. Its prosperity now quickly revived. A new liberal constitution, drawn up by an assembly convened at the demand of the people, and formally accepted March 16, 1844, made great changes in the government of Greece, of which the city speedily felt the favorable results. Since 1844 there have been few events of importance in the history of Athens. In 1854, during the Crimean war, revolutionary movements having broken out against the Turks, Athens was occupied by a garrison of French and English troops, which was not wholly withdrawn till 1857. In 1854 also the Asiatic cholera visited the city, causing terrible suffering and a very great number of deaths. Our knowledge of the appearance and topography of ancient Athens is derived from several sources: from the ruins now visible in the modern city, from which almost alone scholars have been able to ascertain the positions of many walls and buildings; from In the casual references and allusions of ancient | ed the Asty from the earliest times, the great historians, orators, and dramatists; but most of all from the detailed account of Pausanias, who visited Athens in the time of the Antonines, a period of great splendor. By the aid of these means of information, interpreted and arranged by many eminent scholars among whom Col. Leake and the German philologist Forchhammer are prominent as having established the principal points almost beyond a doubt a very accurate idea has been formed of the ancient capital, its fortifications and environs. In describing it, we shall, after a few necessary explanations, follow the route taken by Pausanias, using his descriptions in their order, and filling the gaps left by him with information derivable from other sources.Athens that is, all the district lying within the fortifications-consisted of three parts: 1. The Acropolis, often called simply the Polis. 2. The Asty, or upper town, as distinguished from the port towns, and therefore really in wall around it, to which we have alluded, was built by Themistocles as soon as possible after the battle of Salamis. The port towns, though also slightly fortified by him, were first regularly walled and laid out under Pericles, by whose advice they were connected with the Asty by the northern long wall and the Phaleric wali. The southern long wall was not built until about the beginning of the Peloponnesian war; the Phaleric wall then became comparatively useless, and was allowed to decay. The position of the gates in the wall of the Asty has been a matter of much doubt. The locations given in the accompanying map are those agreed upon by the best authorities, though many of them are still uncertain.-Pausanias apparently entered the city by the Piraic gate, and his first mention is of the Pompeium, a building used as a depository of certain very valuable sacred vessels (Tourcia) when not in use. Here were several statues, among them one of Socrates. Beyond this, in passing toward the Acropolis, were the temples of Demeter (Ceres), Hercules, and several minor deities; then the gymnasium of Hermes (Mercury); all these were on the road leading toward Piræus, and passing between the hills of the Museum and the Pnyx. The former of these, lying on the historian's right, and S. W. of the Acropolis, was a considerable elevation, crowned by a fortress, and probably covered with houses. Upon it was the monument of Philopappus, which still remains in a ruined state. The hill of the Pnyx, the height lying to the left of Pausanias, was one of the famous localities of Athens. Here was the bema, or pulpit of stone, from which the great Athenian orators spoke to the assembled people, gathered in a semicircular level area of large extent, which was the Pnyx proper (IIvig). The bema and traces of the levelled area still remain. Beyond the Pnyx, to the cluding the Acropolis. 3. The port towns, northeast, was the Areopagus, or hill of Ares Piræus, Munychia, and Phalerum. The Acro- (Mars), on the S. E. summit of which the famous polis was in itself a citadel; the Asty was court or council of the Areopagus held its sitsurrounded by walls; and three similar walls, tings. N. W. of the Pnyx was still another the two long walls and the Phaleric wall, con- hill, that of the Nymphs. Along the road nected the Asty with the port towns. About taken by Pausanias colonnades extended, probathe position of these last three there has been bly forming the entrances to dwellings in the little doubt; but the questions concerning the rear. Pausanias next entered the district of walls of the Asty itself have been matter for the Asty called the inner Ceramicus (the outer controversy. For a long time the views of Col. Ceramicus lying outside the walls), at that Leake on this point were considered the true prominent point of Athens, the Agora, or ones; but Forchhammer's theory is now gen- market place. This was a square surrounded erally adopted as correct. The wall around by colonnades, temples, and public buildings, the Asty measured 60 stadia; that around decorated with statues and paintings. On the Piræus (with Munychia) the same; the length right, as Pausanias entered it, stood the Stoa of each of the long walls was 40 stadia, and Basileius (royal colonnade), in which was held that of the Phaleric wall 35. The walls of the court of the archon basileus. Upon its Piræus, and probably the others also, were 60 roof and near it were numerous statues, which feet in height. Between the long walls, which Pausanias describes. Next this stoa was anwere 550 feet apart, ran a carriage road from other, the Stoa Eleutherius, decorated with the Asty to Piraeus; and this was probably paintings by Euphranor. Near this, again, lined with houses, so that the city was contin- stood the temple of Apollo Patrous, that of ued through the whole distance. Although the Mother of the Gods, and the council house some kind of fortifications probably surround- of the 500. According to the account of the Plan of Athens and the Port Towns. 1. Erechtheum. 2. Propylaa. 3. Temple of Nike Apteros. 4. Temple of Ares. 5. Sanctuary of Semna. Plan of Ancient Athens. historian, the Tholus, a circular stone edifice | excursion, passing up the Ceramicus toward dedicated to the gods, the temple of Aphro- the gate, noticing the gymnasium of Ptolemy dite Pandemus, the altar of the Twelve Gods, and a very great number of statues of gods and heroes, also stood around the market place; and on the fourth side were the Stoa Pocile, the temples of Aphrodite Urania and Hephæstus, and the Eurysaceum, a temple to the memory of Eurysaces, a son of Ajax. In the Agora was also an enclosure where the votes for ostracism were received. Many of these things are not mentioned until later in the historian's account, for Pausanias now changed his route, passed down the road continuing the street of the Ceramicus on the other side of the Agora and leading to the Ilissus, and only returned to the Agora after describing much of the remainder of the city. Near the end of the long street, which was generally lined with private houses, he found the Odeon, first built for a public theatre, but afterward used as a granary, and near it the Enneacrunus, or fountain of Callirhoë, the only supply of fresh running water in ancient Athens, the rest used by the inhabitants having been drawn from wells. Beyond these were several smaller temples. Returning to the Agora, and describing those parts of it not alluded to before, Pausanias now began a new Present Appearance of the Theseum. and the temple of Theseus, or Theseum. This edifice, at this day the best preserved monument of the splendor of ancient Athens, was a structure of Pentelic marble, a peripteral | ples. It was begun by Pisistratus and finished hexastyle of the Doric order of architecture, by the emperor Hadrian, so that its construc104 ft. long, 45 broad, and 334 high to the tion was continued at intervals through a summit of the pediment. Its sides and pedi- period of 700 years. It was 350 ft. long, ments were adorned with sculptures, some of 171 broad, and of great height, surrounded which remain, though much injured. Many by a peristyle comprising 160 columns, 16 of of these, as well as parts of the building, which remain standing; they are 6 ft. 6 in. in were painted. They set forth incidents in the diameter, and more than 60 ft. high. Several lives of Theseus and Hercules. Pausanias minor buildings are next noticed by Pausanias, turns to the right at the Theseum, and visits among them the Pythium and the Delphinium, the temple of the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux), both temples of Apollo. After visiting certain the Aglaurium or sacred enclosure dedicated gardens which appear to have been in this to Aglaurus, and the Prytaneum, an edifice in quarter of the city, he describes the Cynosarwhich were deposited the laws of Solon. The ges and the Lyceum, both outside the walls; Olympieum, S. E. of the Acropolis, was the the former a place sacred to Hercules, the latter largest and must have been in some respects the famous gymnasium in which Aristotle exthe most magnificent of all the Athenian tem- pounded his doctrines. Pausanias returned following his description of the Acropolis we are aided by the magnificent ruins still remaining General View of the Acropolis at the Present Day. (From a recent Photograph.) along the Ilissus, passing several lesser altars and sanctuaries, and his account makes its next important subject the Panathenaic Stadium, a partly natural amphitheatre in the hills, in ancient times furnished with marble seats from which an immense multitude could witness the games below. The terraces of this amphitheatre are still to be traced. The historian returns to the Prytaneum, notices the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, which still exists, among the most beautiful of the smaller relics of Athenian art, and enters the sacred enclosure of Dionysus, in which stood two temples, and near which was the Dionysiac theatre. Near the theatre, again, stood the Odeon of Pericles, the roof of which is said to have been formed in imitation of the tent of Xerxes. Passing westward along the base of the Acropolis, Pausanias mentions the tomb of Talos, the temple of Esculapius (Asclepieum), and several other monumental tombs and temples, which were here clustered together.-In Ground Plan of the Acropolis. of the temples that covered its summit, and may safely supply many details of the account. The principal buildings on the summit of the Acropolis were the Propylæa, the Erechtheum, and the Parthenon. The Propylæa served at once as an architectural embellishment and a military defence. Among the ancients it was more admired than even the Parthenon, for the skill with which the difficulties of the ground were overcome, and for the grandeur of the general effect. The approach was a flight of 60 marble steps, and was 70 ft. broad. At the top of the steps was a portico of six fluted Doric columns, 5 ft. in diameter and 29 ft. high. The side wings, on platforms, 78 ft. apart, had three Doric colums in antis fronting upon the grand staircase. The north wing contained the Pinacotheca, a hall 35 ft. by 30; the hall of the south wing was 27 ft. by 16. Behind the Doric hexastyle was a magnificent hall 60 ft. broad, 44 deep, and 39 high, with Ruins of the Propyla. a marble ceiling resting on enormous beams, supported by three Ionic columns, on each side of the passage. At the east end of this hall was the wall, through which there were five entrances, with doors or gates. The central opening, through which the Panathenaic procession passed, was 13 ft. wide and 24 ft. high; those next the central are, on each side, 9 ft. wide, and the smallest 5 ft., the height varying in proportion. These gates were the only public entrance into the Acropolis. Within the wall, on the eastern side, was another hall, 19 ft. deep, its floor elevated about 4 ft. above the western, and terminated by another Doric portico of six columns. The pediments and ceilings of this structure have been destroyed. Most of the columns remain, some of them entire, with heavy fragments of the architraves. Passing through the Propylæa, one came to the Erechtheum, on the left or north side of the Acropolis, and the Parthenon on the right, near the southern or Cimonian wall. The Ruins of the Erechtheum. ruinous a condition that the distribution and arrangement of the divisions are subject to the greatest doubt. There remains to be described the Parthenon, the noblest monument in Athens. It was built of Pentelic marble, under the superintendence of Phidias, |