by Ictinus and Callicrates. It stands on a basis approached by three steps, each 1 ft. 9 in. high, 2 ft. and about 4 in. wide. Its breadth, on the upper step, is 101-34 ft.; its length, 228 ft.; the height to the top of the pediment from the upper step of the stylobate, 59 ft., and with the stylobate, 64 ft. The temple is Doric, octostyle, or with eight columns at each end, and peripteral, or colonnaded all round, there being 15 columns on each side, not counting those at the corners-46 in all. The length of the secos, or body of the temple, is 193 ft., and its breadth 71 ft., omitting fractions. The space between the peristyle and the wall is 9 ft. wide at the sides and 11 ft. at the fronts. The body is divided by a transverse wall into two unequal portions: the eastern was the naos proper, an apartment for the statue of the goddess, 98 ft. in length; the western, the opisthodomos, which was commonly used as the treasury of the city, 43 ft. long. Within the peristyle, at each end, were eight columns, 33 ft. high, on a stylobate of two steps. Within the naos was a range of ten Doric columns on each side, and three at the west end, forming three sides of a quadrangle; above them, an architrave supported an upper range of columns, which Wheeler, at the time of whose visit they were still standing, calls a kind of gallery; 14 ft. distant from the western columns is the pavement of Piraic stone, on which the great chryselephantine statue of Athena was placed. Besides the internal decorations, the outside of the temple was ornamented with three classes of sculpture: 1. The sculptures of the pediments, being independent statues resting upon the deep cornice. The subject of those on the eastern pediment was the birth of Athena; of those on the western, the contest between Poseidon and Athena for the possession of Attica. 2. The groups in the metopes, 92 in number, representing combats of Hercules and Theseus, the Centaurs and Amazons, and perhaps some figures of the Persian war. These groups were executed in high relief. 3. The frieze round the upper border of the cella of the Parthenon contained a representation in low relief of the Panathenaic procession. All these classes of sculpture were in the highest style of the art, executed by Phidias himself, or under his immediate direction. Most of them were in place when Wheeler visited Athens, in 1676; and drawings of the figures in the pediments were made in 1674 by Carrey, a French architect in the suite of the marquis de Nointel, minister of France at the Porte. The interior of the temple was thrown down in 1687, by the explosion of a bomb in the Turkish powder magazine. The front columns of the peristyle escaped, but eight on the north side and six on the south were overthrown. Morosini, in endeavoring to remove some of the figures on the pediments, broke them, and otherwise did great mischief. At the beginning of the present century, Lord Elgin dismantled a considerable part of the 57 VOL. II.-5 Parthenon of the remaining sculptures, which form the most precious treasures of the British museum at the present moment. A question has been much discussed as to whether any portion of the exterior of the temple was decorated with painting. It is hardly possible to doubt the fact, after a personal examination. Many of the mouldings have traces of beautifully drawn patterns. Under the cornices there are delicate tints of blue and red, and of blue in the triglyphs. Architraves and broader surfaces were tinged with ochre. All these figures were executed so delicately and exquisitely, that it is impossible to accept the theory sometimes advanced of their being the work of subsequent barbarous ages. There are other traces of colors on the inner surface of the portion of the walls still standing, which evidently belong to a period after the stonecutters Eulogius and Apollos converted the Parthenon into a church. Among the inscriptions there is one, found in 1836, containing a record of money paid for polychromatic decorations. The Parthenon was built in the best period of architecture, and under the inspiration of the highest genius in art. Its aspect is simple, but scientific investigation has not yet exhausted its beauties and refinements. Unexpected delicacies of construction have not ceased to be discovered in it. In 1837 Pennethorne, an English traveller, noticed the inclination of the columns. Hofer, Schaubert,and others have examined the subject, and published their observations upon the inclination of the columns and the curved lines of the stylobate and architraves. Mr. Penrose, an English scholar and architect, visited Athens in 1845, and was afterward sent by the society of dilettanti to complete the investigations he had already commenced. The results were published in a splendid folio, in 1851. They may be briefly summed up thus: The lines which in ordinary architecture are straight, in the boule debated important measures previous to bringing them before the assembly of the people, received reports, decided to what courts certain appeals should be made, &c. Its mem Doric temple at Athens are delicate curves. The edges of the steps and the lines of the entablatures are convex curves, lying in vertical planes and nearly parallel, and the curves are conic sections, the middle of the stylobate ris-bers held office for one year, and it held daily ing several inches above the extremities. The external lines of the columns are curved also, forming a hyperbolic entasis. The axes of the columns incline inward, so that opposite pairs, if produced sufficiently far, would meet. The spaces of the intercolumniations and the size of the capitals vary slightly, according to their position. From the usual points of view these variations and curves are not perceptible, but they produce by their combination the effect of perfect harmony and regularity; and the absence of these refinements is the cause of the universal failure of buildings constructed in modern times according to what have been supposed to be the principles of Hellenic architecture. This subject is treated by Mr. Penrose in great detail, and with remarkable precision; also by M. Beulé, in L'Acropole d'Athènes (Paris, 1853-'5).-Besides these famous buildings, there were on the Acropolis others of less size, but great beauty. Such were the temple of Nike Apteros (the Wingless Victory), the remains of which have been discovered and restored, the temple of Rome and Augustus, | and the temple of Artemis Brauronia. Among the celebrated statues and works of art on the summit of the Acropolis was the colossal statue of Athena Promachus, which represented the goddess holding a spear and in full armor. It was of such height that it could be seen at a considerable distance from the coast, above the Parthenon and the other highest buildings of the city. The population of ancient Athens has been a subject of much controversy; but the results reached by different authorities differ by only a few thousands from the estimate of Leake, who supposes the city, including the port towns, to have contained about 192,000 inhabitants. Of these, all who corresponded to our laboring classes were slaves; a large proportion of the remainder were metaci, or residents of foreign birth; while the actual Athenian citizens, freemen in the enjoyment of all the civic rights, formed the smallest class of all. This statement uses the word citizen in a narrow sense, applying only to those within the walls; but the political privileges of an Athenian citizen were extended to all free-born and properly qualified citizens of Attica. They were generally divided into eupatrida, or patricians, geomori, or landholders, and demiurgi, or tradespeople. (See ATTICA.) The government of Athens in the time of its prosperity was in the hands of three bodies: the nine archons, elected annually; the boule, or council of state (of 400 members under Solon's constitution, 500 under Clisthenes, and after the year 306 B. C. increased to 600 members); and the assembly of the people (ecclesia). Among the archons were divided special departments of the executive power. (See ARCHON.) The meetings. The ecclesiæ were of three kinds: assemblies of the people held on fixed days, at intervals of about a month; those called on extraordinary occasions by committees (as we should call them) of the boule; and those which in important cases included not only the citizens of the city but of all Attica. These assemblies had the ultimate power of decision in all cases without appeal, made war and concluded peace, passed laws and made alliances, and confirmed or censured the acts of officials. Their meetings, usually held in the Agora, on the Pnyx, or in the theatre of Dionysus, were conducted with many ceremonies. The chief court of the Athenians was that of the Areopagus, the origin of which is lost in prehistoric legends. Men who had held the rank of archon composed it. Its jurisdiction extended over all cases of treason and special cases of murder, serious assault, and arson. (See AREOPAGUS.) Next stood the court of the ephori, who numbered 50, chosen from the citizens, who tried ordinary cases of murder and assault. There were several other courts of less importance. There were few taxes in ancient Athens. The state derived a great part of its income from the rent of its lands to private citizens. The taxes, including harbor dues, market taxes, taxes paid by foreign residents, the tax set upon public prostitutes (after the time of Pericles), and a few others, were farmed out. Upon the actual citizens there fell almost no burden of taxation. The fines imposed by the courts were also a considerable source of income for the state, and of course the largest sums of all were those extorted from enemies and foreign allies of the city.-The ceremonies connected with religious worship at Athens were perhaps more magnificent than in any other city of the ancient world. The chief among the great solemnities were the Panathenæa, the Dionysiac festival, and the Eleusinian mysteries. (See BACCHANALIA, ELEUSIS, and PANATHENÆA.) The rites and temples were under the charge of priests, whose offices were generally hereditary. Immense sums were annually expended by the state in beautifying the temples, sacred enclosures, and monuments of the gods, and the days dedicated to them were celebrated with magnificent ceremonies.-The private life of the Athenians in the most ancient days of the city was simple; but with the administration of Pericles, or even before it, their customs became extravagant and sensual. The magnificent Athenian banquets of this and subsequent periods surpassed almost all others of the time. The guests reclined on couches about the tables, while dancers of both sexes, musicians, and the songs of hired slave girls accompanied the most extravagant feasts. These ended with sym posia, or drinking bouts, generally scenes of the wildest license. The education of the citizen before this period of luxury was as follows: After having his name inscribed by his father or other relative in the catalogue of his phratry (see ATTICA) when he was but three or four years old, the young Athenian was brought up during the next few years in the part of the house devoted to the women (gynaceum). At seven his actual education was begun under a pedagogue or tutor, under whose guidance he visited the schools and places of public athletic exercises, pursuing courses of rhetoric, mathematics, music, philosophy, and also of manly arts-riding, spear-throwing, wrestling, &c. Women and girls were scarcely allowed by decorum any social intercourse, nor were any facilities furnished them for education. This accounts for the fact that the most intelligent and brilliant women of Athens were found among the hetara, a term which is wrongly translated by our word prostitutes; for these women, though actually hired mistresses, were generally an orderly, highly educated class, and only obeyed customs which were sanctioned by the age. An Athenian could marry at or after the age of 14. Heiresses were compelled by law to marry their next of kin, outside the natural limits of course, that the property might not pass to another gens. Divorce was obtained by the simple consent of both parties; adultery was severely punished. The Athenian private houses were generally Small frame buildings, with tiled roofs: the streets between them were narrow and crooked. Only as late as the time of Clisthenes were fine private houses constructed, and the custom once begun, it increased so fast that Demosthenes severely reprimanded certain citizens for building houses far surpassing the public edifices; no ruins remain to give us an idea of these. The dress of the Athenians was very simple. The older men wore white robes or himatia, the younger the saffron-colored chlamys or tunic. The women wore the chiton, a long woollen robe; over it a cloak or wrapping, the diploidon; and outside this again a simple shoulder cloak or cape, the hemidiploidon. This dress varied little in times of festival.-In the present political division of the kingdom of Greece, Athens is the capital of the nomarchy of Attica and Boeotia, as well as of the entire kingdom. Its population in 1871, after a slow increase for several years, was 48,107. It is the residence of the king and court, and the seat of several important institutions of learning, art, and public charity. Among these are the university, employing more than 50 professors and instructors, and having a free library of more than 90,000 volumes; an observatory and botanical garden; two gymnasia on the German system; a military school, schools for the special education of priests and teachers, a polytechnic school, a seminary for girls, &c. An "American female school" founded by Rev. J. H. Hill, is also maintained in the city; it was for a long time under the direct patronage of the government. The grammar and primary schools are excellent, and instruction is generally sought and widely diffused. Among the institutions of art is an association for the promotion of the study of the fine arts, and there are several museums in which the scattered relics of the old splendor of the city have been brought together and carefully arranged. Under the head of public charities fall an asylum for the blind and a hospital, both of considerable size. Among the public buildings are the palace, a fine building of three stories, near Mount Lycabettus, the chamber of deputies, the barracks, mint, theatre, and extensive structures intended for the assemblies of the national academy, and for the museum and polytechnic school. There are also about 100 churches, some of them admirable specimens of architecture. The largest is that of St. Nicodemus, built during the middle ages, in the Byzantine style. Like most of the others, it is not of great size, and depends for its effect on the beauty of its construction. The general appearance of the modern city is not especially attractive on near approach, though the magnificent height of the Acropolis, crowned with the ruins we have noticed above, and the pleasant situation of the town itself, give it a picturesque aspect when one views it from some distant point. Parts of the city have the dirt and squalor peculiar to nearly all towns of southeastern Europe; but its condition has been gradually improved since it | became the royal residence, and now there are several broad streets and squares, well kept and clean. The hotels, shops, cafés, &c., are among the indications of the improvement of the city, and the local trade is active, though there is comparatively little commerce with foreign ports.-See Forchhammer's Topographie von Athen (in the Kieler philologische Studien for 1841, Kiel), and his essay in defence of his views in the Zeitschrift für Alterthumswissenschaft (1843, Nos. 69, 70); Leake's "Researches in Greece" (London, 1814), and especially his "Topography of Athens' (1821); also his work "On some Disputed Questions of Ancient Geography" (1857); Wordsworth's "Athens and Attica" (London, 1836); Stuart and Revett's "Antiquities of Athens" (London, 1825-'7); Mure's "Journal of a Tour in Greece" (Edinburgh, 1842); Kruse's Hellas (Leipsic, 1826); K. O. Müller's Attika (in Ersch and Gruber's Encyklopädie, English translation by Lockhart, London, 1842); Prokesch's Denkwürdigkeiten (Stuttgart, 1836); the article "Athena" in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography" (London, 1854); Böckh's "Public Economy of the Athenians" (translated by Lamb, Boston, 1857); Wessenberg's "Life in Athens in the Time of Pericles" (London, no date); Prof. Felton's "Greece, Ancient and Modern" 66 | (Boston, 1867); Tuckerman's "Greeks of Today" (New York, 1873). ATHENS, a S. E. county of Ohio, on the Ohio river; area, 430 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 23,768. It has railroad communication with Marietta, Columbus, and Cincinnati. The surface is well wooded and extremely fertile, and abounds in iron ore and coal; and large quantities of salt are manufactured throughout the county. The Hocking river intersects the county, and the Hocking canal extends from its centre to the Ohio canal. In 1870 the county produced 133,745 bushels of wheat, 96,012 of oats, 619,447 of Indian corn, 78,721 of potatoes, 23,239 tons of hay, 207,839 lbs. of tobacco, 513,864 of butter, and 201,593 of wool. There were 57,399 sheep and 15,097 hogs. Capital, Athens, on Hocking river and the Marietta and Cincinnati and Hocking Valley railroads, 70 m. S. E. of Columbus. ATHENS, a city, capital of Clarke county, Ga., on the Oconee river, at the end of the Athens branch of the Georgia railroad; pop. in 1860, 3,848, of whom 1,893 were colored; in 1870, 4,251, of whom 1,967 were colored. It is the centre of a large cotton-growing region, and has several cotton factories. The university of Georgia, a state institution founded in 1801, is situated here. In 1868 it had 5 instructors, 76 students, 256 alumni, and a library of 7,500 volumes. The law department had 4 professors and 14 students. The city has three weekly newspapers, besides two periodicals. ATHERTON, Charles G., an American senator, born at Amherst, N. H., July 4, 1804, died Nov. 15, 1853. He was elected a member of congress in 1837, and on Dec. 11, 1838, introduced under a suspension of the rules a series of resolutions, declaring that “ congress has no jurisdiction over the institution of slavery in the several states of the confederacy;" and that "every petition, memorial, resolution, proposition, or paper, touching or relating in any way or to any extent whatever to slavery, or to the abolition thereof, shall, on the presentation thereof, without any further action thereon, be laid on the table without being debated, printed, or referred." These resolutions were passed, under the previous question, by a vote of 126 to 78, and formed the basis of the 21st rule of the next congress, by which all such petitions, upon presentation, were considered as objected to, and the question of their reception laid on the table. Mr. Atherton continued in the house of representatives till 1843, when he was elected to the senate, where he remained till 1849. He was again elected in 1852. ATHIAS, Joseph, a learned Jewish printer in Amsterdam, died about 1700. He is principally noted for having published two editions of the Old Testament in Hebrew in 1661 and 1667, on which, on account of their correctness, most of the modern editions are founded. They are remarkable for being the first in which the verses were marked with Arabic figures. In acknowledgment of his merits the states general conferred upon Athias a chain of gold and a medal. ATHLONE, a market town and parliamentary borough of Ireland, on both sides of the river Shannon, near its entrance into Lough Ree, partly in Westmeath and partly in Roscommon, 68 m. W. of Dublin; pop. in 1871, 6,617. The opposite shores of the river are here united by a handsome bridge, and a canal has been formed to avoid the rapids at this point, thus making navigation practicable for 70 miles higher up the stream. The castle on the right bank of the river, with its outworks, covers 15 acres. It is connected by railway with Dublin and Galway, and an active trade is carried on by steamers with Limerick and Shannon harbor, and with Dublin by the Grand and Royal canals. After the battle of the Boyne William III. besieged Athlone unsuccessfully, but it was taken by Gen. Ginkell, June 30, 1691. ATHOL, Athole, or Atholl, a district in the northern part of Perthshire, Scotland, embracing about 450 sq. m. It is picturesque and mountainous, some of the summits attaining an elevation of more than 3,000 feet. It contains several lakes and beautiful valleys, among which is the pass of Killiecrankie, where Graham of Claverhouse gained a victory and met his death in 1689. Agriculture is carried on in the valleys, while on the hills sheep and cattle are pastured. ATHOS (mod. Gr. Hagion Oros, holy mountain; Turk. Aineros), the easternmost of the three peninsulas projecting from ancient Chalcidice, in the N. W. part of the Egean sea, now included in the Turkish eyalet of Salonica, about 30 m. long and from 4 to 7 broad. It is mountainous, and cut by numerous ravines. At its extremity stands the mountain from which it takes its name. Mt. Athos is about 6,350 ft. high, with a peak of white limestone, while its lower rocks are of gneiss and argillaceous slate. The sides of the mountain are flanked with vast forests of pines, oaks, and chestnuts, the pines growing to an immense size. Various kinds of aromatic herbs grow here in abundance, out of which the monks extract the oils and essence and use them for medicinal purposes, perfumery, and ingredients in incense. It was across the isthmus which connects the peninsula of Athos with the mainland that Xerxes cut a canal for his ships, in his invasion of Greece. The remains of this canal, according to the best authorities, are still distinctly visible through most of its extent. Near the middle of its course it is not discernible, having been filled up. Athos was so called from the giant of that name who in the Grecian mythology hurled the mountain at the gods. The peninsula in ancient times contained several flourishing cities and a temple of Jupiter; and in the middle ages it was dotted over with hermitages and monasteries, 20 of which still remain. Most of these mon a change of affairs or return to favor. The monks at present number about 6,000, from Greece, Bulgaria, Roumania, and Russia, in all of which countries the convents of Athos possess estates. No female is permitted to enter the peninsula. The monks are ruled by an administrative assembly (protaton), composed of delegates from the various convents chosen for a term of four years. The administration of justice and the management of the revenue are also vested in this body. The assembly has its seat at Karias, the capital of the peninsula. A Turkish aga resides in Athos and collects an annual tribute from the convents. In the middle ages these convents were the seat of Greek science and the centre of Byzantine Christian knowledge, and possessed many large libraries. There are still to be found there old and beautiful manuscripts, several of which have been photographed and deposited in the museum of Moscow. ATITLAN, or Atitan, a lake of Central America, about 20 m. in length and 8 to 10 m. in breadth, situated in the department of Solola, Guatemala. It appears, from the geological formations about it, to lie in the crater of an ancient volcano, and it is of extraordinary depth, no soundings, it is said, being obtainable with a line of 1,800 ft. Although several small streams flow into it, no outlet has been discovered. The scenery in its neighborhood is remarkably picturesque; high cliffs surround it, with but little vegetation. On the southern bank of the lake is a small Indian town of the same name, having barely 2,000 inhabitants. ATKINSON, Thomas Witlam, an English artist and traveller, born in Yorkshire, March 6, |