given to industrial pursuits; while the Czechs, belonging to the same tribe as the Moravians, are the more agricultural portion of the population, and of all Slavic tribes in many respects the most gifted and cultivated. They are preeminently a musical people, and are fond of song and poetry. With the exception of 45,331 Lutherans, 58,720 Reformed, and 89,539 Jews, nearly all are Roman Catholics. There were 4,008 public schools in 1868, of which 1,762 were German, 2,165 Czech, and 81 mixed. There were 46 high schools of different grades, 11 agricultural schools, 2 mining schools, 1 military school, and 4 theological institutions. The capital, Prague, has 2 polytechnic institutions, one for the Germans and one for the Czechs, and a university. The majority of the professors of the university are Germans, but most of the students are Czechs. The conflict between the German and Czech nationalities has become very animated, and is from year to year assuming larger dimensions. The Czechs chiefly act through the secretaries of the district and communal authorities, while the Germans have established throughout the country political associations. The leaders of the German party from 1862 to 1872 were Herbst, Hasner, Schmeikal, and Pickert. The Czechs, though united in the conflict against the Germans, have in political questions split into the conservative old Czechs, headed by Palacky and Rieger, and the democratic young Czechs, whose foremost leader is Sladkowsky. The diet of Bohemia has 241 members, consisting of the archbishop of Prague, the three bishops of Budweis, Leitmeritz, and Königgrätz, the rector of the university of Prague, 70 delegates of the Grossgrundbesitz (large landed estates), 72 delegates of the towns and industrial places, 15 delegates of the chambers of commerce and industry, and 79 delegates of rural communities. The diet elects 54 delegates to the Reichsrath of Vienna, and also a standing committee, the Landesausschuss, which is presided over by an Oberst-Landmarschall appointed by the emperor. For administrative purposes Bohemia is now (1873) divided into 89 districts and 2 independent communes.— The earliest inhabitants of Bohemia were the Boii, a people supposed to have been of Celtic race, from whom the country received its name. In the 1st century B. C. they were driven out by the Germanic Marcomanni, whose realm flourished for a time under Marbod, the rival of Arminius. This people, however, subsequently emigrated or were driven into Bavaria, and Bohemia was occupied in the 6th century by the Slavic Czechs, who also established themselves in Moravia. Portions of the country were about the same time colonized by Germans. The Czechs maintained their independence, under national chiefs, between the Avars and the Frankish empire, though often harassed by invasions. house of Premysl (Przemysl) became preëminent in the nation. Christianity was intro

the forests, which cover one fourth of the surface of the country, of 3,000,000 cords of wood, besides timber. The horses of Bohemia are of a superior breed, but the horned cattle are small. According to the census of 1869, there were 189,327 horses, 1,602,015 cattle, 1,106,290 sheep, 194,273 goats, and 228,180 hogs. In manufactures Bohemia is by far the most important of the provinces of Austria. The production of linen goods, partly of the finest description, employed in 1871 about 50,000 persons, and the aggregate value of the linen goods was 30,000,000 florins. Lace making by hand formerly supported over 40,000 persons at the north, but has greatly decreased since the invention of machine lace, and is now limited to the region between Waldstein and Catharinaberg in the Erzgebirge. Cotton manufactories are increasing; in 1871 there were over 540,000 spindles, producing about 112,000 cwt. of yarn; nearly 60,000 looms were employed on calicoes. These manufactories are in the northern region, next the Erzgebirge, but the woollen factories, of which in 1871 there were 350, are more numerous in the northeast, near Reichenberg. There are over 50 leather factories, and the gloves of Prague are much in demand. The paper mills, of which there were in 1871 more than 70, are particularly numerous in the district of the Eger and in the Riesengebirge. The Bohemian glass factories, about 120 in number, producing annually about 6,000,000 florins and employing 24,000 persons, are renowned all over the world, and work mostly for export, particularly to America; the imitation gems, the looking-glass, and fine ornamental glass ware are unsurpassed. The china, earthen, and stone ware produced in 1871 (about one half in the circle of Eger) were valued at 2,500,000 florins. The iron industry has its centre in the region of Pilsen, Pribram, Horzowitz, and Pürglitz; the value of the raw and cast iron produced in 1871 was 1,500,000 florins. The machine factories, the most important of which were in and near Prague, produced machines and tools to the value of 4,500,000 fl. The value of the products of the entire metal industry amounted to about 16,000,000 fl. There are also more than 100 factories of chemicals, mostly in the regions of Pilsen, Aussig-Tetschen, and Falkenau. The factories of beet sugar, more than 130 in number, produced in 1871, 3,400,000 cwt. The total industrial products of Bohemia are valued at 218,000,000 florins. Its commerce is also rapidly developing, owing to the favorable situation of the country. The exports in 1871 amounted to 22,000,000 fl., the imports to 20,000,000. The number of breweries in 1868 was 968, of distilleries 324.-Of the population the Germans constitute about 37 per cent., the Czechs 61, and the Jews 2, the latter using generally the German language. The Germans inhabit in compact masses the northernmost quarter of the country, the mountainous districts, and form a great part of every city and town population, being more

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sounds, viz., 8 and ch, as in the German word Gläschen. Cz was formerly used for ě, rz for ř, and sz for .-The Czech language has no article, but has declinable demonstrative pronouns. It has three genders, eight declensions, seven cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, instrumental or sociative, and locative); three numbers (a dual only in nouns and pronouns); two kinds of adjectives, determinate and indeterminate; organic and periphrastic degrees of comparison; declinable numerals; six forms of the verb (with but one inflection), six modes (indicative, imperative, conjunctive, optative, conditional, and transgressive or participial). The passive voice and the future tenses are made by means of auxiliaries; but the terminations of persons and numbers are not less developed than in Greek and Latin. Great liberty in the sequence of words characterizes the syntax, which is analogous to the Greek and Latin. Metre predominates over the tones in the vocalism of words, so that the Czech language can vie with the Magyar in rendering Greek and Latin poetic rhythm. Great variety, force, and phonetic symbolism in the derivating affixes, enrich the language with a great number of expressions, and make up for its scantiness of metaphony.-Joseph Dobrovsky, the great Slavic linguist, divides the history of the Czech language and literature into six periods, commencing respectively with the following epochs: 1, the immigration of the Czechs; 2, their conversion to Christianity, A. D. 845; 3, King John of Luxemburg, 1310; 4, John Huss, who introduced a precise orthography, 1410; 5, the extension of printing, and the accession of Ferdinand I. of Hapsburg, 1526; 6, the battle at the White Mountain, and the expulsion of the non-Catholics, 1620. The discovery in 1817 of a part of the Rukopis vralodkorsky (manuscript of Königinhof), by Hanka, in a church steeple, brought to light a collection of 14 lyric and epic poems, alleged to have been written between the years 1290 and 1310, and superior to most of the contemporary productions of other European nations. There are about 20 poetic and 50 prose works extant belonging to the epoch before Huss, such as Dalimil's chronicle in verse, of 1314; a song of 1346, on the battle of Crécy, where King John fell, and other historic legends; Thomas Stitny's book for his children, 1376; Baron Duba's judicial constitution of Bohemia, 1402; a politico-didactic poem, by S. Flaska of Richenburg; and various allegoric, dramatic, and elegiac compositions, besides translations of foreign works. Charles I. of Bohemia, known as Charles IV., emperor of Germany, founded in 1347 the Benedictine monastery of Emaus, in the Neustadt of Prague, for monks who had fled hither from Croatia and in 1348 the university of Prague. John Huss revised the translation of the Bible, wrote tracts and hexameter poetry, and gave a great impulse to the activity of the

Czech mind. Notwithstanding the wholesale destruction of the Hussite writings, there yet remain, hidden in archives and libraries, many productions of the Calixtines, Taborites, Horebites, Orphanites, and other Hussite sects, some of them by mechanics, peasants, and women. Many of these works were carried off by the Swedes, and are now in the library of Stockholm. Mere rhyming, however, prevailed over poetic inspiration in most of the verse of those times. But the prose works of the 15th century, especially the state papers, are models of composition: concise, clear, and emphatic in style; so much so, that the Czech language was about to become a general means of civilization for all Slavs, and was even used in Lithuanian official documents. John Ziska, the leader of the Hussites (1419-'24), composed war songs, and a system of tactics for his troops. The work of Hayek de Hodetin, and especially that of Wenceslas Vlcek de Cenow, on Hussite strategy, are more important. The accounts of the travels of Albert Kostka de Postupitz to France (1464), of Leo de Rosmital through Europe (1465), of the Bohemian_Brother Martin Kabatnik in Asia Minor and Egypt (1491), of John de Lobkowitz to Palestine (1493), &c.; the spirited and elegant political work of Ctibor de Cimburg, the classic production of the same sort by V. C. de Wszehod, "The Art of Governing," and the great encyclopædia of the canon Paul Zidek, with many works on economy, popular medicine, &c., are monuments of the Czech intellect in the latter half of the 15th century. After 1490 the kings ceased to reside in Bohemia, and German Catholics began to pour into the country. Nevertheless, Czech literature attained its golden age between 1526 and 1620, especially under Rudolph (II. as emperor of Germany, 1576-1612), when the sciences and arts were zealously cultivated by all classes of society. Kepler (though a German) presided over the astronomic observatory at Prague, which then had two universities and 16 other literary institutions, including schools for females as well as males. The Czech tongue was now more developed even than the German, and was used in all transactions; in point of style the works of this period are inferior to those of earlier times, but the political and legal literature is superior to the rest. The following works are worthy of mention: George Streyc's psalms; Lomnicky's poems; Charles de Zerotin's memoirs and letters; Wenceslas Hayek de Liboczan's romantic chronicle of Bohemia; Barto's work on the religious troubles of 1524; Sixtus de Ottendorf's work on the diet of 1547; John Blahoslav's history of the Bohemian and Moravian brethren, perhaps wrongly ascribed to him; a universal history, now at Stockholm, by an anonymous author, but rich, clear, and trustworthy; genealogies and biographies by Brzezan; an excellent history by Veleslavin; the travels and fortunes of Ulric de Wlkanowa, Wenceslas Vratislas de

Mitrowitz, and Christopher Harant de Polzitz, &c. Matthew Benesovsky's glossololgy, and Abraham de Ginterrod's classic archæology, are also memorable. There are several good works on judicial affairs and on religious subjects; for instance, that of Augusta, a bishop of the Bohemian Brethren: The translation of the Bible published by this society reached eight editions. It is in pure and elegant Czech, and was translated from the original in the castle of Kralitz in Moravia, by a society which Joseph Zerotin had collected and maintained there from 1579 to 1593. Count Slavata, one of the imperial Catholic party, who was thrown from a window of the castle of Prague by Count Thurn's associates in 1618, left a detailed documentary history of his times, in 15 vols. folio. That act of violence opened the thirty years' war, and brought about the sudden fall and decay of Czech civilization, which then sank to a low degree of debasement. The best men of the country perished by the sword and pestilence; others emigrated; German, Italian, Netherlandish, Spanish, and Irish adventurers took their place in all offices, dignities, and emoluments. Ferdinand II. imported Benedictines from Montserrat in 1624; and the Jesuits, escorted by the soldiery, ransacked every house for Bohemian books, burning all those published after 1414 as heretical. This state of things lasted far into the 18th century. While it prevailed, many of the so-called Bohemian heretics and rebels Germanized their very names. The Jesuit Anton Konias, who died in 1760, boasted of having burnt 60,000 books. The exiles, however, continued to cherish their native literature, and printed several books in Poland, Saxony, Holland, &c. The Hungarian Protestant Slovaks did very much in preserving Bohemian letters. In Bohemia and Moravia there appeared but few works, among them Bezovsky's chronicle, the lays of Volney, and the hexameter essays of Rosa. John Amos Comenius, the last bishop of the Bohemian Brethren, wrote an Orbis Pictus in several languages, and although his Latinity is barbarous, his native style is pure, lively, and forcible. The Swedes, who were expelled from Bohemia in 1640, carried many literary treasures home, among others the Azbukividarium or Alphabetum Slavorum, in Glagolitic characters, on parchment, now in the great book at Stockholm; also the Alphabetum Rutenum in Cyrillic characters. The empress Maria Theresa decreed, Dec. 6, 1774, the cessation of persecutions against the Protestants, and remodelled the system of education, introducing normal and other schools. Joseph II. ordered that German should be the language in the high schools and in all public affairs. But, thanks to the exertions of Count Francis Kinsky, and of the historian Pelzel, the Czech language was introduced into the higher military institutions, and the sciences were freed from German trammels. The Czech culture soon rose from its long lethargy, and writers appeared in all

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branches of literature, among whom the following must be particularly mentioned: Pelzel, Prochazka, Kramerius, Parizek, an author of good school books, and Tomsa, a linguist. The father of modern Bohemian poetry was Anton Puchmayer, a clergyman (1795-1820), who was also well versed in Polish and Russian. He was followed by the brothers A. and T. Negedly, Rautenkranz, Stepniczka, Hnievkovsky, who was also a good prose writer, Svoboda, and especially Jungmann, and Chmelensky, a lyric poet. The higher classes, however, continued to be estranged from native letters until lately, although since 1776 a chair for the Czech language has existed even in the university of Vienna. Printing had been introduced into Bohemia in 1476, and Vrtatko lately even claimed a share in its invention in favor of Bohemia, on the ground that Gutenberg was originally from that country, and that the press was freely developed in it, without the aid of Germans. The above-mentioned discovery of Hanka, the introduction of the Czech tongue in the high schools, the efforts of the supreme burggraf Kolowrat in the foundation of a national museum (1822), and other favorable circumstances, have more recently produced a sudden rise of Bohemian literature. We must be content with notices of its more prominent writers and productions. Schafarik and Palacky first recommended the old metres in verse. A committee on the language was formed in the museum in 1831. Langer wrote lyric, didactic, and satiric poems; Roko, an epic; Holly, an epic, Svatopluk, and a CyrilloMethodiad;" Kollar, elegies; Schneider, songs and popular ballads; Stiepanek, Klicpera, Mahacek, Vocel, and Turinsky, dramas. Ópera libretti were produced by the last named, by Svoboda, and by Chmelensky. Prizes were offered for the best dramatic works, and a national theatre was founded by subscription. The foremost of the modern poets are Kollar, whose masterpiece is the Slavy dcera (“Daughter of Glory "), and the song-writer Celakovsky. In tales the favorite author is Erben; and the songs and ballads of Schneider are in the mouths of all. Among the properly romantic poets we find Macha, Halek, Neruda, Fric, and Barak, most of them living. Czech fictitious literature is comparatively poor. We must also mention Jungmann's "History of Bohemian Literature," Schafarik's "History of Slavic Literature," and the latter's translalations from Aristophanes, Schiller, Bürger, and others. A new scientific glossology was produced by Presl, professor and director of the cabinet, and author of many works on natural history. Palacky is at the head of the historical school, and is a writer on æsthetic and critical subjects. So was Schafarik, who also wrote an eminent work on "Slavic Antiquities" (3d ed., 1863-'4). Philosophy, theölogy, the natural sciences, and mathematics have found numerous votaries. Of late, owing to the liberty of the press and the all-absorbing