you taken to the post-office? 4. I have taken seven, three for you and four for my father. 5. Where is the gentleman who has brought that letter ? 6. He lives at my father's; do you wish to speak to him? 7. I wished to send him a letter which I brought from England. 8. Have you returned to that man the money which he had lent you? 9. I have returned it to him. 10. Did you wish to send your brother the key of your room? 11. I wished to send it to him. 12. Was it worth the while to give your brother that book? 13. It was worth the while to give it to him, for (car) he wanted it. 14. Was it worth the while to send those bottles to the druggist (apothicaire)? 15. It was worth the while to send them to him. 16. Where is the innkeeper? 17. He is in England. 18. How many children has the locksmith? 19. He has ten. 20. How many books has the physician ? 21. He has five hundred volumes. 22. Have you given the gentleman that letter? 23. I have forgotten to give it to him. SECTION LVI.-IDIOMATIC USES OF TENSES OF VERBS. 1. The French avoid placing the verb at the end of such sentences as the following, when the nominative is a noun. He has been writing these two hours. Il y a un mois qu'il demeure à He has lived in Paris one month. Paris, Il y a deux ans qu'il est mort, He has been dead these two years. 3. When, however, the state no longer continues, the past may be used in French, in the same manner as it is used in English. Combien de temps avez-vous de- How long did you live in L. 1 meuré à L.? Combien de mois avez-vous appris How many months did l'allemand? German? you I have not seen him this month. 17. 13. Savez-vous combien il y a de Paris à Vienne? 14. Il y a trois cent six lieues de Paris à Vienne et deux cents lieues de Vienne à Copenhague. 15. Y a-t-il longtemps que la compagnie est venue? 16. Il y a plus de deux heures qu'elle est ici. Y a-t-il longtemps que vous avez lu cette affiche ? 18. Il y a plus de trois heures que je l'ai lue. 19. N'y a-t-il pas plus d'une demi-heure que votre sœur lit ? 20. Il y a si longtemps qu'elle lit, qu'elle en est fatiguée. 21. Y a-t-il longtemps que vous attendez ce morceau de musique? 22. Il y a plus d'un an que je l'attends. EXERCISE 108. 1. Do you not know where my father lives? 2. I know where he lives, but I have no time to go to his house to-day? 3. How long has the physician lived in Paris? 4. He has lived there ten years. 5. How long did he live in England? 6. He lived in England six years and a half. 7. Can you tell me where the locksmith lives? 8. He lives at my brother's. 9. Have you been waiting long for this book? 10. I have been waiting for it more than a year. 11. How long has your son been learning Greek? 12. He has been learning it these two years. 13. How long has your brother had this orchard ? 14. He has had it more than six months. 15. How far is it from Paris to Lyons? 16. It is one hundred and sixteen leagues from Paris to Lyons. 17. Is it farther (plus loin) from Lyons to Geneva than from Lyons to Turin ? 18. It is farther from Lyons to Turin than from Lyons to Geneva. 19. How long did your father live in Germany? 20. He lived in Germany two years, and in England six months. 21. How long did you live in Rome? 22. We lived there more than a year. 23. Have you been learning German more than one year? 24. I have been learning it more than four years. KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN FRENCH. 1. Avez-vous les chevaux de mon frère ? 2. Je n'ai pas les chevaux de votre frère, j'ai les chapeaux de votre cousin. 3. Les maréchaux ont-ils de bon fer? 4. Le maréchal a deux morceaux de fer. 5. Avezvous deux paires de bas? 6. J'ai une paire de bas, et deux paires de gants. learn 7. Votre sœur a-t-elle les bijoux d'or? 8. Ma sœur a les bijoux d'or et les joujoux de papier. 9. Avez-vous les choux dans votre jardin ? 10. Nous avons deux choux dans notre jardin. 11. Avezvous les chapeaux de soie? 12. Les généraux ont les chapeaux de soie. 13. Avez-vous du café ou du sucre ? 14. Nous n'avons ni café ni sucre. 15. Vos frères ont-ils honte? 16. Mes frères n'ont ni honte ni peur. 17. Qui a deux barils de farine? 18. Le meunier a deux barils de farine. 19. Les oiseaux ont-ils du pain? 20. Les oiseaux n'ont pas de pain. 21. Le marchand a-t-il du thé, du chocolat, du sucre, et du poivre? 22. Il a du sucre et du poivre, mais il n'a ni thé ni chocolat. 23. Votre sœur qu'a-t-elle? 24. Elle n'a rien. 25. Votre frère qu'a-t-il ? 26. Il n'a rien. 27. N'a-t-il pas froid? 28. Il n'a pas froid, il a chaud. EXERCISE 17 (Vol. I., page 78). Il y un mois que je ne l'ai vu, RÉSUMÉ OF Combien de temps y a-t-il que vous avez cette maison ? Il y a deux ans que nous l'avons. Combien de temps avez-vous eu cette maison ? Nous l'avions dix ans. Il y a huit lieues de Calais à Bou- It is eight leagues from Calais to logne. Affiche, f., bill. An, m., année, f., year. Attend-re, 4, to expect, to wait for. Compagnie, f., company. A Boulogne. 1. Combien de temps y a-t-il que M. L. demeure à Paris? 2. Il y a dix ans qu'il y demeure. 3. N'a-t-il pas demeuré à Lyon ? 4. Il y a demeuré autrefois. 5. Pouvez-vous me dire où est le fils du capitaine? 6. Il y a un an qu'il est en Angleterre. 7. Savez-vous où demeure M. B. ? 8. Il demeurait autrefois à Rouen; je ne sais pas où il demeure maintenant. 9. Y a-t-il longtemps que vous êtes ici? 10. Il y a plus de deux mois que nous sommes ici. 11. Combien de temps y a-t-il que vous avez ce verger? 12. Il y a un an que nous l'avons. 1. Have you the blacksmiths' hammers ? 2. Yes, Sir, I have them. 3. Have you them not ? 4. No, Sir, we have them not. 5. The workman has them. 6. Has the innkeeper your horses? 7. The innkeeper has neither my horses nor yours, he has his. 8. Has the physician books? 9. Yes, Sir, he has good books. 10. Have you not my best pens ? 11. Yes, Sir, I have your best pens, mine, and those of your cousin. 12. Has the traveller good guns? 13. He has no good guns, he has iron guns. 14. Has not the sailor my horse-hair mattresses ? 15. He has them not. 16. What has he? 17. He has the cabinet-maker's woollen mattresses. 18. Has the cabinet-maker mahogany tables? 19. Yes, Madam, he has mahogany tables and white marble tables. 20. Have you my chairs or yours? 21. I have neither yours nor mine, I have the cabinet-maker's. 22. Are you not sleepy ? 23. No, Sir, I am neither sleepy nor hungry. 24. Has the tinman your iron candlesticks? 25. No, Sir, he has the blacksmith's. They are: 1. Gravity. 2. Resistance of surface. 3. Tension. 4. Friction. Gravity is the most universal of these, as it acts constantly and on every substance. Hence we ought always to take it into account, though, for the sake of simplicity, we have hitherto neglected it. Most that is requisite was, however, said about it in our lessons on the centre of gravity. All bodies attract each other with a force proportionate to their bulk. If a heavy weight be suspended by a cord over the edge of an almost vertical precipice, and looked at from a short distance by a telescope, we shall find that the cord does not hang perfectly vertical, but is inclined slightly inwards by the attraction of the rock for the weight. ever. This principle of universal attraction, which was discovered by the great Sir Isaac Newton, is applicable to all bodies whatIt holds the smallest stone to the ground, and at the same time keeps the planets in their orbits, and thus lies at the basis of the science of astronomy. When a body is raised from the earth and then left free, this attraction causes it to fall. The reason why it falls towards the earth, instead of the earth rising to it, is the immensely superior bulk of the latter. Strictly speaking, they do move towards each other in the exact proportion of their bulk. If a body of equal size with the earth were allowed to fall towards it, they would meet just half way. This force always acts towards the centre of the earth, and its amount is easily ascertained, being simply the weight of the body. When we say that a body weighs eight pounds, we merely mean that that is the force with which the attraction of the earth draws it. This attraction diminishes as we remove farther from the earth's centre; hence, as the diameter is greater at the equator than at the poles, a substance weighs less there than it does as we travel northward or southward. Of course this must be ascertained by a spring balance; in any other kind, the weight would be altered as much as the substance weighed. We see, then, that gravity acts in a line perpendicular to the earth's surface, is equal to the weight of the body on which it acts, and, as before shown, may be considered to act through its centre of gravity. It is now easy to calculate what allow ance is to be made for the weight of the simple machines, and whether this weight tells in their favour or against them. In a lever of the first kind, for instance, as the power acts at the longer arm, the centre of gravity will, if the lever be uniform, be in that arm, and therefore gravity is here a third force, which helps the power to sustain a greater weight than it otherwise could. In the first system of pulleys, on the other hand, their weight acts against the power, one-half of the weight of the pulley next the power being supported by it, one-fourth of the next, and so on. Hence the weight that can be raised is less than theoretically it should be. We now pass to the second kind of force-resistance of surfaces. We shall better understand this by assuming a case. A ball rests on a horizontal table; the force of gravity presses it vertically downwards with a force equal to its weight, and yet the ball does not fall. Evidently there must be some force counteracting that of gravity. This force is the resistance of the table, which presses it upwards with a force exactly equal to its weight; for, if it were not equal, motion would ensue. This resistance acts, too, in a line perpendicular to the surface, for it must be exactly opposite to the line in which gravity acts, or else the two forces would have a resultant, in whose direction the ball would move. We learn, then, the following general principle:Action and re-action are always equal, and act in exactly opposite directions. When two surfaces press on one another, the line of action of the resistance must pass through the point of contact. If the surfaces be smooth and one be a plane, it will also be perpendicular to that plane. The third kind of force is the tension of strings or fine rods. When an omnibus is drawn by horses, the forces which act directly on it are the tensions of the traces, and by these tensions it is moved. About this kind of force there is little difficulty, as it acts along the direction of the cord by which it is communicated to the body moved, and its intensity is measured by the number of pounds it will support. We accordingly pass on to consider the nature and effects of the fourth kind, namely, friction. This has been frequently referred to, and, as it often interferes with the accuracy of the results we obtain, it is very important for us to become familiar with its effects. If we attempt to cause one body to slide or move over another, we find a certain amount of resistance to our efforts. This resistance or opposition to attempted motion is friction. All surfaces have a degree of roughness or unevenness of texture, and the inequalities of two such surfaces fit into one another, the projections of the one catching those of the other. We find this friction more or less in all cases of attempted motion. If two surfaces were absolutely smooth, there would be none; this, however, we cannot obtain, but the nearer we approach to it, the less friction we have. If a block of wood lies on the ground, I may be unable to push it along. Move it now to a surface of clear ice, the resistance will be less; and if we place it on narrow smooth runners, like those of a sledge, we still further reduce friction. In all cases, however, it exists; and as we see, it is only called into play when motion is attempted; and since it prevents the body from moving (unless the force applied be powerful enough to overcome it), its line of action must be contrary to that of the attempted motion, as otherwise it could not neutralise the force applied. Now it will easily be seen that it is of great importance to be able to ascertain the amount of friction between surfaces. On a railway we want to know what force is required to overcome the friction of a train along a level part of the line. We can easily, by the principles of the inclined plane, find the additional force required to draw it up an incline. Many practical questions of this sort are constantly met with, and there are two common ways of solving them. The most usual method is by the apparatus represented in Fig. 82. A slab of the substance over which the other is to slide, is laid horizontally on a table. A block, A, of the second substance is taken, a cord is fastened to it and passed Fig. 82. over a pulley at the edge of the table, so as to be parallel to its surface; at the other end of this cord a scale-pan is fastened Weights are now placed in this, or, better still, sand is poured into it, until a just begins to move. The weight of the sand in the pan divided by that of A, gives the fraction which expresses the proportion that the friction bears to the weight to be moved. Thus, if the substance weigh 2 pounds or 32 ounces, and a weight of 5 ounces is required to move it, the fraction is. This is called the Co-efficient of Friction. The other way of ascertaining this quantity is sometimes easier. A block, ▲ (Fig. 83), of one substance is laid on a plane, BC, made of the other, and the end c is then lifted till a is just on the point of sliding down the plane. The full amount of friction is now at work, and we may consider this as a case of a body kept at rest on an inclined plane. The forces which act on A are its own weight in the direction A w, the resistance of the plane in the direction AR perpendicular to its surface, and R E JA the force of friction which acts up the F plane along A F. Now, C since there is equi librium, this last force is equal and opposite to the resultant of A E and Aw, that is, to 45. The three forces, then, D may be represented by the three sides of the triangle WA E, but this triangle is similar to the triangle BCD; therefore we may take BC as representing the weight, and CD сп is the co-efficient of friction. the friction, and We have, then, the following rule:-Incline the plane till the body is on the point of motion; the elevation of the end of the plane divided by its length gives the required fraction. W Fig. 83. BC This suggests the way of making a useful calculation, like the following:-On how steep an incline will a cart stand safely if the co-efficient of friction be? We see that the incline must be somewhat less than 1 foot in 30, as, if it be greater, the cart will run down from its own weight. By these and similar means thousands of experiments have been tried, a few of which are here given as illustrations. You can easily try others yourself. Along a railway friction is reckoned to be from 8 to 10 pounds per ton; on a good road about th of the load; this amount, however, varies very greatly with the character of the road. The coefficient of friction for steel on ice is only, while that of oak on oak or elm is over. When a body is kept at rest by the action of any number of forces upon it, if we resolve these forces along any two directions at right angles to one another, their resolved parts in each direc tion must neutralise each other. If they did not, some motion must ensue. In a similar way we can often find whether any number of forces will produce equilibrium, and if not, what their resultant will be. This mode of solving the question is sometimes more convenient than the polygon of forces. Suppose three forces, represented by A B, A C, and A D (Fig. 84), act on A. Fix on any two lines E F and G H at right angles to one another, and both passing through A. From B, C, and D drop perpendiculars on E F and G H. This may be done with a and thus is the resultant of two forces which are represented by A N and A K. We may therefore resolve it into those two, and, There are, however, certain general rules, discovered by expe- square. Now A B is the diagonal of the parallelogram K A N B, riment, which are more important to remember. 1. Friction is proportional to the pressure. If we place weights on A (Fig. 82) so as to double the pressure, we shall find it requisite, also, to double the weights in the pan, and so for any other alteration of the pressure of A. 2. The amount of friction does not vary with the extent of the surfaces in contact. This at first seems strange, but, if we consider it, we see the reason. Suppose a block of deal two inches thick move over another surface of deal. If the block weigh 10 pounds, the force required to overcome friction will be about 3 pounds. Now saw the block into two, of half the thickness, and lay them side by side. Each has half the weight of the original block and the same surface, and so the friction of each will be one-half of 3 pounds; the two together will therefore move with the same friction as the one did, though the extent of surface is doubled. 3. The amount of friction varies with the nature of the bodies and the smoothness or otherwise of their surfaces. Various ways of diminishing friction are adopted in practice. Those parts of any machine which work together are made as smooth as possible, and oil or grease applied to them. The bearings, too, or boxes in which the axles of wheels turn, are made of a different kind of metal from the axles themselves, and many other expedients are resorted to. Still there is a loss of power from this cause, which often amounts to or even . There are two kinds of friction-sliding and rolling. Sliding friction is that of which we have spoken; but if a body be made round, and allowed to roll over and over instead of sliding, a different kind of friction comes into action. The rudest application of this is when a man, instead of pushing a stone along the ground, puts rollers under it, and thus moves it with far more ease, fresh rollers being put under in front when needed. Wheels are a further advance upon this, as they not only save the trouble of constantly replacing the rollers, but, as they only touch the ground at the sides of the body, and not along the whole width as rollers do, they avoid much of the friction. Sometimes when a large axle has to turn in bearings, frictionwheels are introduced. These are small wheels, on the edge of which the axle turns, and they transfer the friction to their own small axles. Many such appliances to avoid friction are constantly met with. Castors on chairs and tables, and narrow irons on skates, are familiar examples. We must not, however, imagine from all this that friction is always a hindrance. Far from it. If we try and walk along a very glassy surface of ice, we are soon painfully reminded of the absence of the customary friction between our boots and the surface on which we are walking, and hence in frosty weather gravel or ashes are scattered on the paths. All the driving force a railway engine has is from the friction of its wheels with the rails. It was at first proposed that the driving-wheels should be toothed, and notches cut into the rails into which these teeth might catch; but the friction was soon found to be sufficient. On damp days, however, we frequently see the porters at a station putting gravel on the rails, in order that there may be more friction at starting. The brake, also, which is applied to stop a train or machine, acts by pressing a block against the wheel, and thus causing an amount of friction which is soon sufficient to overcome the momentum acquired. So, when a nail is driven into a piece of wood, it is held in its place merely by friction, and the same cause enables the fibres of cotton or hemp to cling together so as to be woven into a cord or rope. We see, then, that friction is one of the most important forces we have to consider. We must now look at two propositions which are often very useful, and we shall then be able to trace the application of what has been said to a few common cases. instead of A B acting on A, we shall have the two forces a N acting along E F, and A K acting along H G. In the same way resolve a C and A D into A L and ▲ M, and A O and A P respectively. We have thus resolved all our forces into others acting in the directions we fixed upon. Three of these, AN, AM, and A O, act along EF; and if A N equals the sum of the other two, these will cancel one another, and so of the forces along G H. If there are any residues in either case we mark off distances from A to represent them, and complete the parallelogram, the diagonal of which will be the resultant. The other proposition is as follows: If a body be kept at rest by the action of three forces, their lines of action must, unless the forces be parallel, pass through one point. For if not, since two of them pass through the point in which they meet (and they must meet, not being parallel), the body will turn till this point comes into the line of action of the third. If in Fig. 85 two of the forces act through B, and the third through A in the direction A c, the body will evidently turn till B, A, and C are in one straight line. The cases when the forces are parallel have all been considered except the one when equal and parallel forces act in opposite directions, and we have what is termed a couple. Let AC and BD represent two such forces. In any other case, if forces act on a body, a single resultant can be found, but here no one force that can be applied will produce equilibrium: The motion. however, which these forces tend to produce, is not one of progression through space, but merely one of rotation round a point midway between A and B. This tendency to rotation increases with the distance A B, and is clearly equal to the sum of the forces multiplied by half that distance. The only way to overcome these forces is to introduce another couple having an equal tendency to turn the body in the conThe application of these principles we shall trary direction. Fig. 85. see in the next lesson. EXAMPLES. 1. A lever of the first kind, 8 feet long, weighs 10 pounds. What weight will a power of 10 pounds raise, the fulcrum being 15 inches from the end? 2. In the first system of pulleys there are four blocks, each weighing 2 pounds. If one-fifth of the power be lost by friction, what weight will 15 pounds support? 3. If friction be reckoned at 9 pounds per ton, what power will be required to draw a train weighing 20 tons up an incline of 1 in 100 ? 4. What strain must a horse pull with, to draw a load of 27 cwt. up an incline of 1 foot in 70, the co-efficient of friction being? 5. If the co-efficient of friction be, and the strain on a rope which just moves a carriage be 80 pounds, what is the weight of the carriage ? 6. A horse has to exert a strain of 116 pounds to pull a wagon weighing 1 tons. What is the co-efficient of friction? ANSWERS TO EXAMPLES IN MECHANICS, XII. 1. A power of 201 pounds. 2. He must pull with a strain of of a ton, or 89 pounds. 3. It would support a resistance of 616 pounds. again, resemble nouns in ing, in having (for the most part) an active signification; but the ending ion differs from the termination ing, inasmuch as the former can be affixed only to nouns of Latin parentage: thus, we say the communication, or the communicating; but WE CANNOT SAY the runion (running), nor the rision (rising). Nouns in ion are not so purely active as are nouns ending in ing. For instance, communication may signify either the act of communicating, or the thing communicated, the result of the act of communicating. So devotion may denote the act of devoting, or the object devoted. Ique, from the Latin iquus, another form of icus; as in antiquus, antique. Antiquus means ancient; but antique does not mean ancient merely or generally, so much as ancient in relation to the immediate past, the age of the Reformation, the Middle Ages. Not seldom has antique the subordinate notion of curious, singular, or odd connected with it; probably because 4. A force of nearly 10 pounds must be applied, the gain being 2×3 antiques are rare. feet divided by inch, which equals 301. 5. The pressure will be 3,3944 pounds. 6. The difference between the threads is of a foot. The gain is therefore 14×2×3×110, or 1,210. LESSONS IN ENGLISH.-XVII. LANGUAGE has many a tale to tell respecting national character and manners. The fact that the English names of animals, when alive, are of Saxon origin-for example, bull, sheep, calfand that the English names of animals, when dead, are of French origin-as beef, mutton, veal-in showing that at one period of our history the Saxon population fed the animals, and the French population ate them, shows also that the former were in hard servitude to the latter; in other words, that our Saxon ancestors were serfs, and the forefathers of the present French were masters on this soil of England. Such a relation was not likely to be durable. A proof of the assertion is found in the words etiquette and coquette, to which reference was made in the last lesson (page 71). Etiquette and coquette are both of French origin. Essentially French are the things the words stand for. Among the French those things had their birth, and on the soil of France they flourished. Hence you learn that lightness, weakness, and vanity are essential features in the character of Frenchmen. Superficial, if pleasing, a true type of the French character may outshine, or for a moment overcome, an Englishman, but he is utterly unable to hold our countryman in permanent subjection. Equally illustrative of national character is the fact that Pantaloon and Punch come to us from Italy. Pantaloon is from the Italian Pantalone, which when written in full is Piantaleone, a word signifying lion-planter. Pianteleone was a surname or name of honour, given in the Middle Ages to a very powerful Venetian, who planted the banner bearing the winged lion of St. Mark, the symbol of the Venetian Republic, on many islands of the Mediterranean. His renown caused Piantaleone to be brought on the stage. Hence Pantaloon, the lion-hearted, who originally bore a nearer resemblance to his prototype than is found in the impudence and hardihood of the modern degenerated specimen. And hence the peculiar dress of Pantaloon (also trousers called pantaloons), which, making due abatement for exaggerations, was the attire of distinguished Italians in former days. Our Punch owes his birth and his name to Italy. Punch is derived from the Italian Pulcinella; and Pulcinella seems to be made up of Puccio d' Aniello; that is, Puccio, an ill made, witty clown of the town Aniello, who gained a livelihood by his antics in the market-places and public highways. The character being transferred to the stage, Punch came to be the recognised symbol of fun and frolic. Ion, from the Latin termination io; as actio, action; quæstio, question; motio, motion; visio, vision. Nouns in ion, like nouns in ing, may be called verbal, seeing they are derived immediately from verbs; as actio, from the Latin verb ago (participle passive actus), I do; motio, from the Latin verb moveo (participle passive motus), I move, etc. Nouns in ion, "Name not these living death-heads unto me, For these not ancient but antique be."-Donne. By drawing forth heaven's scheme, tell certainly The word antic, from antique (formerly spelt antick), takes its force from this associated notion of singularity. Woven with anticks and wild imagery."-Spenser. Testament; as in the word baptise, from the Greek BaTTICE, Ise, formerly ize, of Greek origin, introduced through the New ending we have dogmatise, methodise, criticise. This termina pronounced bap-ti'-zo, I dip frequently. From the same Greek tion gives rise to others; as from baptizo come baptist, baptism, baptistry, baptismal. "He (the pope) solicited the favour of England by sending Henry a sacred rose, perfumed with musk, and anointed with chrism."-Hume. anointed; that is, with a consecrated unguent or holy oil. The suffix ise or ize, added to nouns, gives them the force of verbs, thus: to christianise, is to make Christian; to evangelise, is to bring men to the evangel, that is, the Gospel. In the use of this termination authority must be followed. The termination ism is employed to describe religious or social diversities; it is found in Atheism, Deism, Swedenborgianista, Calvinism, Arminianism, Owenism, etc. While ism denotes the sect, ist denotes the sectary; 5, Atheist, Deist, Methodist, etc. The adherents to particular modes of faith are also designated by arian; as, Trinitarian, Unitarian; or ian, as Episcopalian. Sometimes the word man holds a similar post, as in Churchmes, used in contrast with Dissenter. Ist, too, performs the same office; as in Nonconformist. Another form is found in ite; as Irvingite, Mormonite, etc. Analogy is a dangerous guide in English, for, while we say Irvingite, we DO NOT say Southcotite, but Southcotian-probably for the sake of euphony. This te comes, we are disposed to think, not from the rare Latin ending itus (as auritus, with pricked-up ears), but the scriptural ite; as in Jebusite. Ish, probably from the Saxon ic and the German isch (as in mürrisch, peevish), denotes, as in peevish, quality, and so forma adjectives. Ish has sometimes a diminutive force; as thinnish, thickish. When forming part of verbs, as in punish, publish, ish has a different origin, and may be a softened form of the Greek termination ise or ize. Ite, a patronymic, or father-name-the name that is expressive of a race, like the Greek ides-is very common in the Old Testa ment, from the language of which it may have come into the English; thus, Israelite is a descendant of Israel; so we have Hittites, Hivites, etc. Ive, of Latin origin, from ivus, as seen in captivus, a captive; also in fugitive (Latin, fugio, I flee); nativus (Latin, natus, born), a native; votivus (Latin, votum, a vou), votive. This ru in French becomes if, whence we have plaintif (French, plaindre, to complain), the complainant in a suit in opposition to the defendant. Plaintiff and plaintive are the same words differently employed. "We were here entertained with an echo repeating a whole verse in a softer and more plaintive tone, indeed, but with surprising precision and distinctness."-Eustace, "Italy" Iz. For remarks on this suffix and its meaning, see Or. RECREATIVE NATURAL HISTORY. "WHAT are the frogs about this morning, mother?" said a keen little country boy to a stout dame, who was carrying on her head a basket of live poultry to the neighbouring market town. "Oh, bless'ee, child," replied the matter-of-fact woman, "how should I know what the frogs be a-doing? Thee'd better be a-larning yer Catechism for schoolmaster, than go a woolgathering about them frogs." The boy felt he should get no help from "mother," though he "did mightily wish to know" what made the frogs croak so much in the early twilight of that spring morning. egg? Now, reader, can you tell why the frogs were thus croaking from every shallow pool and moat? Draw near to the places whence the sounds proceed. What multitudes of frogs are just showing their heads above the water; how earnestly they give out that croak, croak, croak; and their bright eyes show a singular excitement for such cold creatures! See what a glueylike substance, speckled with numerous black spots, floats on the water. Ah! that explains the agitation in the frog kingdom this morning. The race of these creatures is not to perish, like the dodo or the old English rat; provision is now being made for the next generation of these unlovely but interesting reptiles. The black specks in that jelly-looking substance are the eggs, which have just been deposited, and the parents are singing a merry ditty on the happy occasion. By each one of those female frogs above 1,200 eggs will be placed in the water, where the sun will gradually develop the hidden life in each dark speck. Has the reader ever traced the growth of a frog from the The process is worthy of observation. Let us collect some of that substance in which the eggs are embedded, and place it in a vessel, with some of the water and weeds from the pool. We may now be able to watch all the changes. What is the first transformation? The eggs become marked with little furrows, some vital power being clearly at work within. Next we see, in place of the egg, a tiny lump of jelly-like life, which clings to one of the water weeds. How does it hold on? By a small sucker, which it clearly knows how to use. Is this, then, the first form of the frog baby? The reader may call it so, if he please, but it is not a frog at all yet. Mark the third change; our bit of jelly has acquired gills and a tail, and see how swiftly it moves in the water. It is now really a fish, though called a tadpole. But what is going to happen? The animal is changing again; a pair of hind legs are forming. This is the fourth state. What next? A pair of front limbs are developed, and it is now evident that the creature does not mean to remain a fish; it has reached the fifth transformation. But what has become of the long tail? Has a part dropped off? Certainly not; it has been absorbed into the animal's system, and will soon entirely disappear. We have here reached the sixth stage in a frog's life. The mouth now gradually widens, assuming the form which belongs to the fully-developed reptile. Are the transformations complete now? No; the most remarkable change is the last. Hitherto the creature has breathed by gills-a beautiful living machine for obtaining oxygen from water; but now a means must be provided for breathing air. Lungs, therefore, are gradually formed, and the whole series of wonderful transmutations is complete. Thus our frog has passed through eight changes, each bringing him one step nearer to the final shape and condition. All these mysterious processes can be noted by many readers for themselves, and some will, doubtless, take opportunities for tracing the frog from its cradle to "full age." In warm and moist weather the newly-perfected frogs appear in such multitudes that the lanes swarm with the little creatures, and it is difficult to walk without stepping on them. Indeed the rustics of some districts believe in "frog showers," thus accounting for the sudden and numerous swarms of hopping reptiles. Catch a full-grown frog, place him under a glass vessel into r which air can freely enter, and watch him. How he puffs! What causes that gasping, gulping motion in his throat? He is swallowing air, and forcing it into the lungs. The task is evidently a laborious one; see how tightly he shuts the mouth at intervals, lest the air should escape. Why must the creature use such violent efforts to keep its lungs inflated, when we breathe almost unconsciously? Our ribs keep the chest expanded without exertion; but the frog has no ribs, and a succession of "gulps" is necessary to draw sufficient air into the lungs. No doubt the absence of ribs is good for the frog, but the work of filling "the chest" is much harder in consequence. When a man is engaged in strong exercise, and requires an increased supply of air, the mouth is opened to allow of more free breathing; but if we keep the frog's mouth open for a short time, the animal dies from suffocation. The frog can, however, absorb air through his skin, having in this respect some advantage over us. Indeed, the covering membrane of this animal may be called an absorbing machine, as by it the reptile can imbibe, in a short time, water equal in weight to that of the whole body. Suppose a man weighing one hundred pounds were capable of absorbing through his skin, in one hour and a half, a hundred-weight of water, this would only be on a par with the imbibing power of the frog. Thus it happens that the animal has generally a supply of water at command, and when suddenly startled from a soft resting-place, indignantly ejects a quantity of pure water at the intruder. At one time this emitted fluid was supposed to be poisonous; but if any reader is enthusiastic enough to taste the liquid, he will ascertain its nature. There will not be much to boast of in this feat, the experiment having been often made. The skin of the frog is, in places, so transparent, that the blood may be seen circulating in the vessels beneath, by the aid of a powerful microscope. The foot shows this beautiful process in the most impressive degree. Can a frog bite? The reader can put his finger for a short time into the reptile's mouth, and thus get a reply for himself. We say for a short time, presuming that the experimenter does not wish to suffocate his frog, which would be the result of long keeping its mouth from closing. Well, our naturalist has made the trial, and finds that nothing like a bite can be given. There are, indeed, about eighty teeth in the mouth, but they are all in an undeveloped state. The frog can "bolt," but not masticate its food, and why teeth are given at all is a mystery. The use to which a frog or toad can put its tongue is best seen when the creature is at dinner, feasting on insects and ants. The tongue then acts as a javelin, a trap, and a hand. How still the reptile stands, as he feeds; how rapidly that wonderfully elastic tongue darts out upon the unsuspecting ants; how sure is the aim; how firmly the prey is held by the trap-like point; and how instantaneously the living food is hurried to the captor's mouth! When the meal is over the tongue is doubled up, the tip being then at the back of the mouth. The frog may well dispense with teeth, having such a compensating apparatus. The heart of a frog has some resemblance to that of a fish, having, strictly speaking, but two divisions instead of the four found in the hearts of the larger animals. This reptile is rather a phlegmatic little fellow, the circulation of the blood being very slow, though quick enough for all his wants. We have referred to the absence of ribs in the frog, but the creature has a well-set, though short spine, and its muscular strength is enormous. Measure the length of a frog's leap, when the jump is done in good style. It will often be found that this dull-looking creature is able to leap about fifty times its length at one bound. If a man had muscular power equal to that of a frog he could clear 300 feet at a jump, and would be able to leap over a wall 100 feet high. What lover of gymnastics will not henceforth look upon a frog with deep respect! These reptiles and their cousins, the toads, can endure surprisingly long fasts, for months sometimes, especially if allowed the privilege of living in a damp place. They also reach a comfortable old age, living to about fifty years, when permitted to pass life in a quiet and do-nothing style. But some readers may here remind us that frogs and toads have been said to live for hundreds of years, in the hearts of trees or rocks, without food or air. If this were so, we should say these were very lucky frogs indeed, and we should like to possess one of the breed. We may, indeed, offer a silver medal to any |